*This work in its entirety and all of its parts are property of Megan MacKenna Mayzelle and may not be reprinted without permission. All rights reserved. When used as an information resource please cite accordingly.*
Creating Permanent Cultures
A guide to sustainable farming for nutritional independence
By Megan MacKenna Mayzelle
Peace Corps Paraguay Volunteer
2007-2010
Table of Contents
Introduction.............................3-11
Extension Work in Permaculture...4
The Conversion Process................6
Knowledge for Success...........13-70
Animals.....................................13-35
Cow: Milk Cow/Steer................16/17
Sheep: Ewe/Ram.......................17/18
Goat: Doe/Billy ........................18/19
Pig: Sow/Boar............................19/20
Chicken: Hen/Rooster................20/21
Duck: Female/Male.......................22
Turkey: Hem/Tom..........................23
Rabbit: Doe/Buck..................... 24/25
Fish.................................................25
Bees................................................27
Quail...............................................33
Worm bed.......................................34
Plants.........................................36-50
Pasture............................................36
Green Manures...............................40
Garden............................................41
Crops..............................................44
Trees...............................................46
Energy.......................................51-62
Biodigestor.....................................51
Compost Latrine.............................55
Solar Oven......................................58
Solar Dryer.....................................58
Hot Box...............................................59
Solar Shower or Bath.........................59
Rainwater Tank..................................60
Parasite Prevention and Treatment.....63
Internal Parasites...............................63
Lice and Mange..................................63
Ticks...................................................63
Burrowing Flies..................................63
Specialty Product Recipes.............64-70
Yogurt..................................................64
Cheese.................................................65
Ricotta.................................................65
Butter..................................................66
Cultured Buttermilk............................66
Ice Cream............................................66
Lip Balm and Skin Cream...................67
Propolis Potion...................................67
Candles...............................................67
Honey Wine.........................................67
Citrus Wine.........................................68
Mango Chutney...................................68
Sauerkraut...........................................68
Ginger Carrots....................................69
Pickles.................................................69
Jelly and Preserves.............................70
Freezing..............................................70
Resources......................................71-72
Introduction
Permacultures are farms that mimic ecosystems. Remember the science-class food chain? Soil nutrients and sun are processed by plant, plant is eaten by animal, and animal remains are decomposed into soil nutrients by microorganisms. That is an ecosystem. And just like that ecosystem, a permaculture is self-reinforcing; it uses its own outputs as inputs all over again.
Until recent history, all farms mimicked ecosystems. Farms featured a variety of plants, trees, and animals that utilized each other’s outputs as inputs. As in natural ecosystems, perennial (long-living) species, like trees, shrubs, and animals, were more prominent than annual (single-season) species, such as field crops. These types of farms provided nearly all the nutritional needs of farm families. Other necessities were acquired by selling or trading products of the farm that exceeded the family’s consumption.
It has only been a matter of decades that farms have become focused on the production of a single product. These are called monoculture farms. As cities developed, more and more people began purchasing their nutritional needs; monoculture farms developed in response to the subsequent large-scale economic market demands for certain farm products, such as sugar, corn, wheat, and soy. These farm systems do not mimic ecosystems since only one plant or animal is encouraged to grow on the farm. This single plant or animal is given excessive inputs to encourage rapid growth, and are harvested as quickly as possible. Because of this, all monoculture species become short-lived species, even those that are naturally long-living ones. Additionally, there are no other plants or animals to provide the inputs or utilize the outputs of the farm. This means that artificial inputs must be purchased regularly, and outputs become garbage. Many times inputs are needed (like soil organic matter, or erosion control) which cannot be easily purchased; the overuse of the inputs already existing in nature results in the degeneration of the environment and lower and lower productivity. Likewise, the outputs (such as manure) and the excess artificial inputs (like fertilizer) often build up in large quantities and contaminate the environment, also resulting in degeneration and lower productivity.
Monoculture farms do not supply the nutritional needs of the farm families. Rather, these farms emphasize the sale of products in order to be able to purchase all needs of the family. This aspect of monoculture farms does not apparently seem difficult. However, these farmers often find themselves at the mercy of market prices, middle men, and the other complications of dealing in economy and capital. For example, a permaculture farm family’s opportunity to consume milk products depends on how well they work their farm. If the cows are well-cared-for, their will be milk, cheese, yogurt, and butter to be enjoyed. This fact will not change based on the national or international economy. On the other hand, the monoculture farm family’s opportunity to consume milk products is dependent on value and demand of their product in the market this year, as well as that of the milk products they wish to buy. No matter how well they have farmed their product, if demand for it on the market is low, or if the economy is weak, their income may simply not allow for the purchasing of milk products that year.
Monoculture farm families around the world are coming across environmental degradation, lower productivity, and economic difficulties more and more frequently. For many of them, converting to permaculture farming would be the best option to ensure their quality of life and nutritional needs. Unfortunately, after generations of monoculture farmers, most farmers today are unaware of the benefits of permacultures, and many lack the skills and knowledge to maintain permacultures.
Fortunately, the skills and knowledge are not difficult to acquire. The process of conversion from a monoculture to a permaculture is more complicated; the financial straits many monoculture farmers find themselves in do not allow for the gap time needed to stop one form of production and get another one going. The conversation process, however, is not so painful when completed step by step over a period of seasons.
In this guide you will find suggestions as to how to begin converting a monoculture to a permaculture. You will find the information needed to care for various plant and animal species typical to permaculture farms. Information about necessary initial investments and what kinds of products and returns to expect will also be provided. Finally, recipes for specialty homemade products will be listed.
Extension Work in Permaculture
When you begin talking to farmers about changing their farming system, it is best not to describe the idealized permaculture goal just yet. Remember, many farmers already feel pressed to keep up with household expenses, and although they may listen to you, they will not be able to seriously consider anything that sounds like it may require an investment. Additionally, as mentioned in the introduction, many farmers are not aware of the improvements in quality of life that come with permaculture farming. Like most of us, they associate most strongly monetary income with well-being. The idea of giving up the sale of their product will not be appealing. Finally, using words like “permaculture” will make the ideas you are presenting sound foreign and intimidating. In reality, most farmers are not unfamiliar with the activities you will be suggesting. Rather, they have misconceptions about the costs and benefits of those activities.
Do not try to explain why a farmer should change. In fact, do not even mention “change”. The most effective way to introduce a farmer to change is to simply suggest an addition to the farm that the farmer ALREADY KNOWS will be helpful. The only news you should bring to the farmer is just how easy that small addition can be.
This first step is the hardest, and it is the most important. Once a farmer takes this first step by adding one more species to the farm, opportunities for additional species will present themselves. Each addition becomes a logical next step which many farmers will begin to take on their own. Just like an ecosystem, permacultures are naturally self-reinforcing and diversifying.
The various species in a permaculture all serve a purpose. Each provides inputs that other species in the permaculture need, and each provides something that the farm family needs. With time and attention, a permaculture farm can also come to have many components which function as part of a complex system; some of these components are mentioned in this guidebook. The complexity that permaculture can take on is why it can be intimidating to find how to begin a permaculture. Nevertheless, permacultures can also be simple, and most certainly will be in their first years of development. The most important features of a permaculture are that it fit in the natural environment of the area, and that it benefits the farm family. Do not worry about installing a greenhouse to grow peach trees or a system of dams to irrigate the fields—better to have a mango tree in the yard and plant trees around the fields. Even if it is only a milk cow and a field of forage crops, if it is a permaculture system that benefits the family and is within their ability to manage well, it is a good permaculture. Do not rush toward developing an infamously model permaculture farm. Start small, and let things happen naturally.
The Conversion Process
Soil is the key to a successful permaculture system. It cannot be emphasized enough that in order for any attempt at permaculture to be successful, the soil of the farm must be ready to produce forage crops and grasses. Do not ask farmers to make major investments in soil recuperation; the soil will improve as the permaculture system develops. However, when preparing to bring any animal to the farm, a farmer should definitely first make sure that the land has or can produce all the food that that animal will need to eat. Using parts of the farm to grow forage crops and pasture grasses will ensure that a permaculture thrives. Having crops and grasses growing alongside crops will improve crop production. A natural, complete diet will maximize the production capabilities of the animals, as well as their health and immunity. And finally, the gains made by the farmer will also be maximized—not one bag of feed will ever need to be purchased.
As mentioned in the previous section, the best addition to the farm to initially suggest to a farmer is something that the farmer already knows will be helpful. For most farmers, this is a cow. Cows are familiar to nearly everyone, and they are easy to find. While full-grown cows are expensive, young ones are not. One year of good care will convert a thin calf into a big, healthy adult ready to provide milk or meat to the family for consumption and sale. If possible, it is best to purchase both a male and female calf, so that they can begin producing manure, calves, and milk by the following year. Purchase them from separate owners, or at least ensure that they are not related. Definitely do not buy calves with the same mother or father. If sufficient monetary resources are not available to purchase the pair, just buy the female. Alternatively, the least expensive option is to just buy a male calf. By about one year of age, a young calf will have become a fattened steer, and will be ready for butcher; profits from the meat sale can be invested in purchasing a young pair of calves.
At any rate, having a female cow is an important part of having a permaculture because a single cow’s milk production is sufficient for the family’s consumption as well as some sales. It is worthwhile to track down a Jersey or Holland female to ensure good milk production. As around; word of mouth is the best way to discover possible purchases.
An alternative to purchasing young cows is purchasing young sheep or goats. Like cows, they can be bought inexpensively at an early age, and once full-grown will provide manure, milk, meat, and young. If the farmer has very little to invest, sheep and goats are more realistic because they are less expensive to purchase than cows. Also, if the farmer as yet does not have enough greenery on the farm to fatten a cow, sheep or goats are an excellent alternative, since they can digest a wider variety of plants. The disadvantages to sheep and goats is that they provide less milk than cows, and that it may be more difficult to find one for sale. Nevertheless, they are more easily managed than larger cows and will definitely provide enough milk for the family’s consumption. Whatever animal is initially purchased, keep in mind the eventual goal of purchasing a good milk-producing breed of cow.
Whether from cow, sheep, or goat, once milk production is established on the farm, the fun can begin! Milk production implicates reproduction; young can be sold or kept on the farm. Additionally, milk can be consumed by humans. It can be drank in its natural state, or processed on the farm to produce cheese, ricotta, yogurt, butter, ice cream, and buttermilk. These products extend the shelf-life of milk and increase the value of the original product. Processing milk products also produces outputs which can become inputs for new additions to the farm.
Once a farmer begins producing cheese, encourage them to buy pigs. The whey left over from cheese production will produce robust, healthy pigs. Like other animals, pigs can be purchased inexpensively at a young age and raised on the farm. Again, when purchasing pairs, make sure they are not related. Within a year, they will be full grown and ready to reproduce or provide meat. As with other animals, the young may be sold or kept on the farm. The meat the family will consume can be set aside, and the remainder sold.
Once a farmer has pigs and cows established on the farm, there should be more room for investment in other ventures. If the farmer does not already have them, suggest the purchase of laying hens. Many farmers already have hens, but do not maintain them properly. Look for ways that their shelter or food can be improved; this will significantly increase egg production and the health and longevity of the chickens.
Other important additions to the farm include rabbits, ducks, a vegetable/herb/ medicinal plant garden, trees, beehives, and a fishpond. All of these ventures will provide products for home consumption as well as sale. Which ones are given priority will depend on the condition of the farm and the preferences and needs of the farmer. For example, a farm with poor soil may most urgently need trees to control erosion, provide organic matter and soil cover, and offer forage for the animals. A farmer with an abundance of hummus who is concerned about the price of fruits and vegetables may be most interested in enriching a plot of ground to start a garden. Another may be in need of the services a fishpond provides: a drinking hole for the animals, a suitable environment for the ducks, a source of meat for the family, and a cooling effect on the microclimate of the farm.
Farmers that are developing and diversifying their permaculture farms should think about distributing the harvest throughout the year. Having a variety of fruit trees with varying harvest times will ensure that fresh fruit is available all year round. Winter as well as summer legumes and green manures will offer soil improvement and forage for animals in all seasons. Even garden harvests can be staggered so that vegetables mature one after the other, providing fresh greens for at least a large part of the year. Farmers should also explore methods of processing and preserving their harvest at home. This is another way to maximize nutritional independence and diversity all year long.
As a farm becomes more diverse, the farmer will begin to enjoy “environmental services.” That is, surrounding ecosystems will begin to interact with the one that is being created on the farm, and the farm and the farmer will benefit. For example, trees and bushes on the farm will provide nesting sites for wild birds; these birds will reduce pest problems on the farm by hunting insects and mice. A water source and melliferous plants and trees will attract swarms of bees; these bees will pollinate crops and can be captured to produce honey for the farmer. Trees and forage crops, especially green manures, will improve soil quality by aerating the soil and capturing nutrients with their deep roots, dropping leaves that will serve as ground cover and organic material, cooling the farm and offering shade, and providing forage to animals that will in turn provide manure to the soil.
Harmony and interaction with the surrounding ecosystems is one of several reasons permaculture farms should be designed based on the area’s climate. Farmers in the tropics will have success with Cameroon, oranges, luecaena, sugar cane, and pineapples. On the other hand, crops foreign to the surrounding ecosystems, such as eucalyptus, apples, clover, and ivy will face a constant uphill battle against heat, pests, soil conditions, sun, rain, and humidity. Reaping a crop will be unlikely, and what is harvested probably will not have been worth the effort.
Efficiency is one of the key ideas of permaculture. The reason for this is to minimize the efforts of the farmer. Efficiency in permaculture implies natural processes. That is, in a permaculture, we want work to happen by its own accord, with the least effort possible made by the farmer. This is accomplished by creating interactions of different species on the farm. For example, garlic, onions, and basil all stimulate tomato growth. Another well-known synergetic relatioship on the farm is that of ducks and fish. Ducks living on the pond forage for their own food. They deposit waste into the water, which provides the nutrients needed to stimulate plant growth in and around the pond. These plants aerate and clean the water. They also serve as food for fish such as tilapia and carp. Thus, by creating the duck-plant-fish interaction within the pond, the farmer is saving the cost of duck food, fish food, fertilizer, water aeration, water purification, and the work involved in all these tasks. In addition to this, the farmer is receiving duck meat, eggs, and feathers; fish meat; pond-plant products (watercress, waterchestnut, waterlily, etc), and an emergency water source.
Another of the important components of efficiency is facilitating the farmer’s own interactions with the species on the farm. This means making access when and where it is needed easy. Gardens and fruit trees should be near the house for easy access during food preparation. Having the chicken house adjacent to the garden will allow us to provide food scraps to the chickens and manure to the garden with a simple toss-over-the-fence. Animal corrals should be near what they eat and their source of water; it could also be near trees or on the shady side of a hill to protect the animals from wind, sun, and rain. Plants and trees also have preferred environmental conditions, such as the type of soil, amount of sunlight, and humidity of the ground, that will maximize their productivity. There should be a natural progression between the corrals, the compost piles, and the worm beds; the biodigestor should be somewhere between the pig corral and the kitchen. As the permaculture farm develops, take care in considering where on the farm to place each new component.
The final aspect of efficiency is multipurposeness. Every component of a farm has many unique characteristics and behaviors that can serve the farm in some way; the more of these the farmer exploits, the more productive the farm will be, and the less work the farmer will have to do. For example, a chicken’s primary purpose is to provide meat and eggs. We may even utilize their manure and feathers. They will become even more important parts of the farm, however, if we release them into the pasture and the orchard occasionally. By their natural scratching and foraging, the chickens will return nutrients to the soil by breaking up ruminant manure; they will eat the pests in the pasture and the orchard; and they will clean up fallen fruit. In addition to physical products, the chickens are now also providing services: raking, pesticide control, fertilization, and waste removal. They are also feeding themselves highly nutritive food in the process, improving their meat and egg production and eliminating the need for chicken feed. The farmer has been saved time, energy, and money.
Multipurposeness means that every component of the permaculture system should serve more than one purpose on the farm. A pond is not just for fish. It is also for ducks, watercress, lilies, and willows. If the pond is placed on the side of the house from which summer winds blow, it will cool the house in summer. Finally, the pond will be an important source of water for the bees, for farm animals, and for irrigating plants. Likewise, a tree is not just for shade. It may also provide windbreak, roosts for chickens, forage for animals, nectar for bees, firewood, fruit or nuts, erosion control, nesting sites for wild birds, water storage, and organic material. Multipurposeness also means that the greatest needs of the farm should be met by one or more components of the system. Manure to replenish soil nutrients is not just provided by the cows, but also by pigs, chickens, sheep, and goats. Leucaena is not the only crop grown to feed to the animals; pigeon pea (kumanda yvyra’i), sweet potato, sunflower, mucuna, mandioca, Cameroon, leftover vegetables, and sugar cane are also available. The biodigestor is not the only source of heat for cooking; there is also a brick oven and firewood. The well is not the only water source; there is also a pond, and rainwater from the roof is piped into an emergency reserve tank behind the house.
As the farm grows, farmers should consider local businesses with which it may be useful to network. For example, any nearby food processing center may have left-overs that they either sell very cheaply or give away. These leftovers are often excellent food sources for farm animals. Other nearby farms can also be great resources; for example, farmers may exchange male animals to widen the gene pool of their herds and avoid interbreeding. Exchange of various types of forage crops or other outputs of the farm which one farmer cannot use may also prove useful to the other.
A prominent byproduct of farm animals (and humans!) is manure. Fortunately, this is also an incredibly important part of the health and sustainability of the permaculture system. Manure is a fertilizer indispensible for good soil quality; good soil quality means excellent production of the plants that animals need to consume in order to continue thriving and producing.
Manure from the farm can be processed into fertilizer for the fields and garden in a variety of ways. The easiest is to simply let the animals do the work: during the day, animals can be allowed to graze in a fallow field or in a pasture; as they move about, they will break up the soil, keep weeds down, and provide nutrients. At night animals must be kept in corrals. The corrals will be an excellent opportunity to gather up a lot of manure. Manure from the corral can be combined with organic matter and water to form a compost pile. Over a period of time, this pile will heat up and decompose back into hummus. Hummus is an excellent natural fertilizer for crops and gardens.
Better than simple compost piling is the utilization of vermiculture. Partially decomposed materials from compost piles can be loaded into beds of worms. The resulting worm hummus is the best fertilizer on earth; the rapidly reproducing worms can also be harvested, dried, and pulverized to be used as a protein supplement in both animal and human foods; it is particularly useful for bird species.
An even more beneficial way of utilizing manure and organic waste is to not only process it into fertilizer, but also to harness the energy expelled during the decomposition the process. This energy can be used to heat water for bathing as well as heat food in the kitchen. These energy sources greatly reduce the need to purchase electric or gas energy from outside the farm, as well as the costs of such services. Energy independence is a final step in nutritional independence.
Instead of being made into compost piles, animal waste can be loaded into a biodigestor. The biodigestor funnels the gases produced during the initial stages of the decomposition process through a hose attached to a kitchen stove burner. As decomposition continues and gas release slows, the partially decomposed material is removed from the biodigestor and loaded into the previously mentioned worm beds, where the decomposition process is completed and worm hummus is produced. Similarly, compost latrines harness the heat energy released by decomposing human waste to heat water within a series of tubes running through the middle of the compost. This water is then directed into the bathroom to provide warm running water.
Compost energy is not the only type that can be harnessed on the farm with minimal investments. Windmills and stationary bikes can be inexpensively built to draw well water. Hot boxes and solar ovens cook food without need of firewood or a gas stove; solar dryers preserve fruits and vegetables for year-round nutritional variety. Solar showers provide hot water for bathing courtesy of the sun. Finally, spouting connected to closed tanks preserves the excess rain from a downpour for dry spells.
The purpose of a permaculture, rather than a monoculture farm, is to drastically reduce the farm family’s dependence on the economy and food market. Implicit to this is less and less need for money. Nevertheless, a farmer who dedicates time, energy, and income to the continual improvement of a permaculture system may find that the farm’s production regularly exceeds home consumption and isolated sales. At this point, the farmer will be able to begin investigating and investing in producing goods which are consistently of competitive market quality. Such investments are completely unnecessary to produce goods for home consumption or localized sales. However, each species and product does have specialized infrastructure, diet supplements, methodology, or technology (all mentioned in the following section) that maximizes the production rate and the quality of the product in an entirely ecological way. Reaching this level of permaculture production is an added bonus for any farm family. However, it should never be presented as a reason for beginning a permaculture farm. Rather, in the first years of conversion toward permaculture farming, it is absolutely essential to highlight and insist upon the importance of the family’s own consumption of the products of their farm. Nutritional education is sorely lacking in many rural areas, and most cultures maintain a deep-seated correlation between money and quality of life. Because of these two factors, some farm families may tend toward selling ALL the products of their farm rather than selling only what remains after home consumption. Obviously, this is not nutritional independence, and largely defeats the purpose of utilizing permaculture methodology.
Knowledge for Success
Animals
The guidelines provided here explain the basic needs of each species typical to permaculture systems and highlight ways to provide these needs ecologically and with little monetary investment. As long as these basic needs are met, animals can thrive in a variety of conditions; thus, use available resources and creativity as much as possible to avoid unnecessary expenses. Also provided here are some of the additional steps that may need to be taken for a more intensive production of goods to be sold.
In all cases, a complete and varied diet in generous quantities ensures maximum production; abundant water should be available to all animals at all times. All animals also need mineral salt in their diet. An additional vitamin and mineral supplement will be beneficial as well. Root vegetables, such as turnips, carrots, sweet potatoes, mandioca, and beets, when fed to animals along with the leaves of the plant, are an important source of vitamins and minerals. Ruminants (animals with 4-part stomachs, such as sheep, goats, and cows) all have similar diets. They experience fewer health issues and produce more milk and meat of high quality on pasture forage. Ruminants should also not be allowed to consume significant amounts of grains, as the acidity of grains upsets the bacterial balance in their digestive systems. Grain consumption does increase milk and meat production to a certain degree in ruminants. The expense of grains, however, largely negates the gains of this increase in production. If leguminous plants make up a prominent part of the pasture forage available to animals, milk and meat production will be less expensive and very comparable to that of animals consuming grain supplements, and the grains will be left for human consumption. These leguminous species are particularly important for dairy producers.
Farm animals are not conditioned for rapid changes in diet. Animals may suffer health issues or be disinclined to eat if they are unexpectedly presented with a totally new platter of foods. If a particular food source is running low, start providing smaller amounts of it and slowing integrating a replacement, rather than using it until it runs out and abruptly changing to something new. Just as for humans, animals benefit more from consuming small amounts of many different types of food on a daily basis than from eating large quantities of one or two foods for a period of time and then switching suddenly to something new (this is one reason why rotational grazing is the preferred feeding method in sustainable farming systems).
The amount of food and water provided here are meant only as approximations. You may vary quantities depending on product demand and the animals’ needs. For example, if the dairy animals are producing more milk than you can use or sell, reducing or eliminating their grain consumption will mean more efficient use of crops and a more manageable amount of milk. If you know that a rabbit sale is coming up, you may want to increase food quantities to help them gain muscle weight more rapidly. Finally, animals will need more water in summer and may need more food during cold winters.
Internal and external parasites are an environmental risk for nearly all animals. Home remedies for parasites are effective for both animals and for humans. Some of the best-known natural anti-parasite treatments are papaya seeds, garlic, parasio leaves, eucalyptus leaves, banana leaves, white can alcohol, and cow urine (most of these also repel pests from gardens and crops). Move animals to a new pasture and clean out their corrals after the initial treatment to prevent contact with infested manure; retreat 3 weeks later to kill any parasites ingested the day of the initial treatment. Pharmaceutical parasite treatment and prevention are also available.
Breeding is an important form of production on any farm. Breeding males should be selected carefully for health, size, and robustness; they may well provide half of all the genes of that species on the farm. Especially as the number of animals in a herd increases, breeding partners should be selected with great care. Animals should always be bred with as distant relatives as possible, and interbreeding should be limited to one generation; for example, a bull is bred with a milk cow he is unrelated to name Bessie, and milk cow Susie is the result. The same bull may also breed with Susie, resulting in milk cow Brownie. The bull should not, however, be allowed to breed with Brownie; the resulting offspring, if it survives, would be immunity-deficient, a poor producer, and possibly malformed. Similarly, a bull may be bred with a half-sibling, but should never be bred with a cow with which he shares both parents. Male cows, goats, sheep, and pigs which are not destined to father offspring can be castrated before reaching sexual maturity. This will make the animals generally calmer and easier to handle. It also speeds weight gain and reduces unwanted breeding.
Castration is a simple procedure which can be done by the farm family. Keeping the animal still will be the most difficult part of the procedure. Clean all instruments well in rubbing alcohol, hydrogen peroxide, fire, or other sterilization method before beginning. Wash the testicles with soap and water, and then wipe down with rubbing alcohol or hydrogen peroxide. Slit each testicle sack with a razor blade just enough to be able to pop out the testicle. Cut the tubes connecting the testicles to the body. There should be very little bleeding. If the cut is not large there is no need to sew up the slit. Clean the wound again after castrating. Check the wound every day to make sure that it is healing. Clean and disinfect it as needed.
It is advisable to breed a female several times during her life. This practice will produce more offspring in less time than slaughtering after every pregnancy and waiting for a new female to mature. Animals which give birth to litters (such as pigs) will often have more young in subsequent pregnancies. Additionally, an animal that has proven capable of responsible motherhood is worth keeping around.
Keep track of which females have been bred and when they will give birth. Shortly before the birth is expected, provide the female with her own cage or corral, as well as a nest or bed of wood shavings. Monitor her closely before, during, and after the birth for any complications that may arise. Observe her care of the young. If she seems to be ignoring them, refusing to suckle, or acting aggressively toward the young, they may have to be raised by hand. Keep the babies warm and protected, and feed them as often as they will eat. A hot-water bottle will be useful in winter; wrap it in a blanket to avoid burning the babies. Use a baby bottle (or dropper) and cow’s milk for mammals. If they refuse milk, at least get some water into them. Fowl are semi-independent at birth and will eat well-milled grains on their own as long as they are healthy. Keep them warm and sheltered from weather, predators, and other animals. Provide water at all times.
A balance between exercise and eating is also important for animals. Obviously, we want animals to consume more that they absolutely need; this is the only way they can grow, develop health and immunity, and provide useful products to the farmer. Exercise is also important to ensure that the animals’ develops muscle, and that that muscle remains supple. However, there is a tradeoff: the more the animal moves about, the more energy it will use, and the less energy will go toward its growth and meat and milk production. Many farmers minimize their animals’ movement almost completely by keeping them penned and bringing their food to them. This method does allow rapid weight gain in minimal time. However, much of that weight will be stored as fat. Additionally, a lack of exercise will make the animals’ muscle stiff and weak. The result is fattier, tougher meat.
An excellent answer to this conundrum is to allow animals to graze in a well-stocked pasture. When grazing, animals move about at a leisurely pace nearly all day long. They also have the opportunity to satisfy their cravings—like us, animal seek out foods which contain the particular nutrients their bodies may be lacking on any given day. During the process, the animals fertilize the field with their manure. Finally, the farmer is freed of the task of cutting and hauling food, cleaning the manure out of corrals, and hauling and distributing fertilizer to the pasture. The results are reduced work and cost for the farmer; a well-fertilized pasture for future grazing; healthy animals; high-quality milk; and lean, supple meat.
It is important to note that animals should not have to hunt for food in the pasture. If there is little forage to be had, or it is scattered over a large area, the animals will be working more than they are eating, and the end products will not be desirable. Additionally, do not limit grazing to only cows, sheep, and goats. Rabbits, ducks, chickens, turkeys, and even pigs can also reap the benefits of grazing and provide services to the farmer in the process.
Milk Cow
Price at purchase: full-grown and productive G2,700,000; calves G300,000
Infrastructure needed: Cows need a corral, at least 30% of which should be covered. The corral should allow at least 8m² per cow.
Disease prevention: Anti-parasite medication every six months and the occasional antibiotic in the case of injury. (Total annual cost about G15.000) Examine the cows often for scrapes or cuts, especially on their underside. Ensure that the corral does not become muddy with waste, as it will cause infection of the hooves.
Food consumption/day: Cows consume about 8% of their total body weight per day. Their diet should consist of various greens, proteins, and minerals. A good mix is Cameroon, pigeon pea, leucaena, and moringa. Canavalia, sugar cane, bran, sweet potato leaf, corn husks and mucuna are good additional supplements. Sugar beets, sweet potatoes, and turnips are good sources of vitamins and minerals. Salt supplements are essential; milk producers also benefit from calcium and phosphorus. Grains, such as soy and corn, can be fed to cows in limited quantities—no more than 1% of the animal’s bodyweight per day (about half a kilo per day per cow). Rotational grazing is the preferred feeding method.
Water consumption/day: about 25-40L per cow
Man hours/day: milking and feeding must be done twice a day; a total of about 30 minutes per cow.
Milk production/day: a well-fed milk cow averages about 16 liters per day. Milking must cease shortly before a pregnant cow gives birth, and during the 3 months following birth at least 6 liters per day should be left to the calf to ensure proper growth. The calf may be weaned after 3 months.
Manure production/day: approximately 10 kilograms per cow
Reproduction rate: 1 calf/year after age 1 year. Gestation is 10 months and calf may be weaned at 3 months of age.
Productive lifespan: (young and milk) about 10 years
Meat production at butcher: 190 kilograms. Price varies according to cut of meat, but the value of the cow can be calculated at about G10,000 per kilo of meat.
Steers
Price at purchase: calves G175,000
Infrastructure needed: same as milk cow
Disease prevention: same as milk cow
Food consumption/day: same as milk cow
Water consumption/day: same as milk cow
Man hours/day: 5-10 minutes per animal depending on feeding method
Manure production/day: same as milk cow
Maturity: approximately 1 year; butchering may occur when butcher weight is reached
Meat production at butcher: same as milk cow
Ewe (Sheep)
Price at purchase: 150,000G for lamb, 500,000G for adults
Infrastructure needed: Sheep need a corral with at least 30% covered by roofing. The corral should allow 4meters² per sheep.
Disease prevention: same as milk cow
Food consumption/day: about 5% of the animal’s bodyweight. Recommended diet is the same as for cows. Rotational grazing is an excellent option.
Water consumption/day:5liters per animal
Man hours/day: milking and feeding twice a day totals about 20 minutes per animal
Milk production/day: 2 liters
Manure production/day: 2.5 kilos per animal
Reproduction rate: 1 birth/year. Gestation is 150 days.
Productive lifespan: Ewes may be bred beginning at 1 year of age of until 8 years of age. Milk them completely every day so that they continue to produce milk.
Meat production at butcher: 65 kilos
Ram (Sheep)
Price at purchase: 150,000G for lamb, 500,000 for adult
Infrastructure needed: same as ewe
Disease prevention: same as cow
Food consumption/day: same as ewe
Water consumption/day: same as ewe
Man hours/day:5-10 depending on feeding method
Manure production/day: same as ewe
Maturity: about 1 year
Meat production at butcher: same as ewe
Doe (Goat)
Price at purchase: adult of reproductive age 500,000G, kid 300,000G.
Infrastructure needed: same as sheep
Disease prevention: same as sheep
Food consumption/day: About 4% of the animal’s bodyweight daily. Release goats into recently-harvested fields or poor pasture land to clean out unwanted plant growth and remains. They will also provide fertilizer and aerate the soil. Goats browse more than they graze (that is, they eat from woody plants more than from grasses). They are also more aggressive eaters than cows; watch for overgrazing. Forage crop species, grain consumption limits, and necessary minerals are the same as for cows.
Water consumption/day: same as ewe
Man hours/day: same as ewe
Milk production/day: same as ewe
Manure production/day: same as ewe
Productive lifespan: same as ewe
Meat production at butcher: same as ewe
Billy (Goat)
Price at purchase: 150,000G for uncastrated kid, 250,000G for castrated kid, 500,000G for adult breeding male
Infrastructure needed: same as sheep
Medical care needed/year: same as sheep. Goats are particularly vulnerable to internal parasites but have few other health issues.
Food consumption/day: same as female
Water consumption/day: same as sheep
Man hours/day: same as sheep
Manure production/day: same as sheep
Maturity: Billies reach sexual maturity faster than females; they must be separated from the herd or castrated by 4 months to prevent unwanted breeding or fighting. Males may be bred at 8 months of age, but mature males of 1 year are preferable.
Meat production at butcher: same as sheep
Sow(Pig)
Price at purchase: newly weaned about G50,000, 25 day-old about 80,000; 50 day-old G100,000-140,000
Infrastructure needed: Pigs need a corral; it should allow 2.5meters² per adult pig. All corrals should be at least 30% roofed.
Disease prevention: anti-parasite every 6 months and occasional treatment for injury; total annual cost approximately G6,000
Food consumption/day: The whey left over from milk production is an excellent nutritional source for pigs. They will also enjoy any leftovers from the kitchen. Toasted grains, such as corn and soy, speed weight gain (Schettler). Supplement their diet with salts and about 1-1.5kilograms of forage (such as that recommended for cows) per animal per day. Forage may be provided through rotational pasture grazing.
Water consumption/day: 1.5-2liters (in addition to whey)
Man hours/day: about 10 minutes
Manure production/day:6kilograms
Reproduction rate: 20 per year after age 8 months. Gestation is 114 days. Mother should be placed in an individual pen or corral lined with wood shavings a day or two before giving birth.
Productive lifespan:2.5years
Meat production at butcher:60 kilos. Price varies according to the cut of meat, but the value of the animal can be calculated at about G15,000/kilo
Boar (Pig)
Price at purchase: same as sow
Infrastructure needed: same as sow
Medical care needed/year: same as sow. Food consumption/day: same as sow
Water consumption/day: same as sow
Man hours/day: same as sow
Manure production/day: same as sow
Maturity: 8 months. Males not destined to father young should be castrated. Uncastrated boars produce an odor which affects the taste of their meat.
Meat production at butcher: 80 kilos
Hen
Price at purchase: meat breed chicks G3,500; egg layer chicks G4,500
Infrastructure needed: Chickens ideally should be allowed to graze during the day but should be corralled at night against predators. The pen should provide 2meters² per chicken; at least 30% of the pen should be roofed. If there are no trees in the chicken pen, provide plenty of raised bars or branches under a roof where chickens can roost. Put a wooden ladder or narrow beam leading up to the tree branches or roost. Provide baskets, boxes, or other containers protected from the weather and lined with straw for egg-laying. Gather eggs daily.
Disease prevention: anti-parasite every 3 months; environmental effects preventative medication annually. Total cost per chicken per year: G2,000. Vitamin supplement (such as Vitagold, see section on rabbit) may be administered optionally in inclement conditions, such as during cold, to new chicks, etc.
Food consumption/day: Chickens consume about 100grams each daily. A complete diet consists of green forage and grains. For example, leucaena, corn, soy, Cameroon. Optional additions may include leftover fruits, vegetables, and egg shells from the kitchen. Worm flour (dried ground worms) is an excellent protein source. Chickens can participate in rotational grazing as well. Use them as a follow-up to cows, sheep, or goats; they will consume insects attracted by the animal’s dung, and will break up dung piles, accelerating nutrient release to the soil. It is preferable to put feed in containers, especially raised ones, rather than on the ground. More of the feed will be consumed by the chickens.
Water consumption/day: about 75milliliters per chicken. Suspended water containers are preferable as chickens dirty their water very quickly, making them susceptible to disease transmission
Man hours/day: about 20 minutes for a flock of 60
Manure production/day: about 150grams per animal
Egg production/year: about 280 for meat breeds; about 365 for egg layers
Reproduction rate: Hens older than 9 months may nest, hatching up to 12 chicks after a 22-day gestation period. Nesting can be encouraged by leaving 8-12 eggs in the nesting box. Chicks will be full-grown and independent of their mother about 6 weeks after hatching.
Productive lifespan:1 year
Meat production at butcher: 2kilos for meat breeds; 1kilo for egg breeds. Meat may be sold for an average of 10.000G per kilo.
Rooster
Price at purchase: same as hen
Infrastructure needed: same as hen
Disease prevention: same as hen
Food consumption/day: same as hen
Water consumption/day: same as hen
Man hours/day: same as hen
Manure production/day: same as hen
Maturity: 8 weeks
Meat production at butcher:2.5 kilos for meat breeds; 1.5 kilos for egg breeds. Meat is worth about 10.000G per kilo.
Duck (Female)
Price at purchase: Chicks are worth about 3.500G. An adult female is worth about 25.000G.
Infrastructure needed: Corral requirements for ducks are the same as for chickens, less roosts; ducks may be kept with chickens but watch for aggressiveness. During the day, ducks need access to water, at least deep enough to stick in their heads and necks. Preferably, give ducks access to a pond. Their manure will encourage growth of the algae fish consume.
Disease prevention: same as chicken
Food consumption/day: same as chicken
Water consumption/day: same as chicken
Man hours/day: same as chicken
Manure production/day: same as chicken
Egg production/year: about 75
Reproduction rate: Female ducks reach sexual maturity at about 7 months. They may sit on up to a dozen eggs at a time; incubation is 28 days.
Productive lifespan: Ducks may live as long as 8 years; however, most live around 2 years.
Meat production at butcher: about 2-2.5kilos. Meat may be sold for about G10.000/kilo.
Duck (Male)
Price at purchase: Chicks are worth about 3.500G. An adult male is worth about 30.000G.
Infrastructure needed: same as female
Disease prevention: same as female
Food consumption/day: same as female
Water consumption/day: same as female
Man hours/day: same as female
Manure production/day: same as female
Time until butcher:
Meat production at butcher: about 3 kilos. Meat may be sold for about G13.000/kilo
Hem (Turkey)
Price at purchase: Chicks are worth about 9.000G. An adult hem is worth about 55.000G.
Infrastructure needed: same as chicken, allowing approximately 4meters² per animal
Disease prevention: same as chicken
Food consumption/day: diet same as chicken; approximately 550grams per adult animal
Water consumption/day: about 400mL per adult animal
Man hours/day: same as chicken
Manure production/day: about 500 grams per adult animal
Egg production/year: about 50
Reproduction rate: Hems begin laying eggs at 30 weeks of age. They may incubate 10-15 eggs at a time; incubation lasts 28 days
Productive lifespan: Hems may reach butcher weight as early as 17 weeks; domesticated turkeys usually live about two years, although they may live as long as ten.
Meat production at butcher: An adult hem will reach about 5.5kilos; meat can be sold at about 10.000G per kilo.
Tom (Turkey)
Price at purchase: Chicks are worth about 9.000G. An adult tom is worth about 75.000G.
Infrastructure needed: same as female
Disease prevention: same as female
Food consumption/day: about 750 grams per adult animal
Water consumption/day: about 500mL per adult animal
Man hours/day: same as female
Manure production/day: about 700grams per adult animal
Time until maturity: sexually mature at 30 weeks; may reach butcher weight as early as 14 weeks
Meat production at butcher: about 7.5kilos; the meat is worth about 10.000G per kilo.
Rabbit (Doe)
Price at purchase: G15,000 for young; G60,000 for adults.
Infrastructure needed: Rabbits should be kept in raised hutches with a roof and wire or wood-slatted floors. This provides protection from predators and the elements and allows waste to fall through the floor of the cage; exposure to moisture, especially their own waste, makes rabbits susceptible to infections. Rabbits do not tolerate extreme heat or excess dust, and require good ventilation in summer. In winter, they must be protected from wind and moisture; detachable plastic sheeting makes the hutches versatile for any type of weather. Females may be kept together as long as they are provided about 1/2meter² of space per animal. Males should be kept alone. This prevents fighting and uncontrolled breeding. Put a small board or other flat object in one corner of a wire floor for the rabbit to lie on.
Raised hutches with wire floors are not the only option for rabbits. They can just as easily be kept in one or several pens with attached ground-level hutches. These pens will need to be cleaned often to prevent waste and moisture build-up. Keep in mind that males should be kept apart from all other rabbits. The fencing of the pen should be fine enough that predators cannot enter. Walls of the hutch should be weather-proof and predator-proof. Also remember that rabbits enjoy digging and will escape from under the wall of any enclosure with a dirt floor. Partially bury the walls of the pen to stave off escapes; watch for tunnels in progress.
Disease prevention: vitamin supplement (such as Vitagold) in drinking water (10drops/liter of water) for three consecutive days, 2 times a year. Rabbits suffering from a vitamin deficiency become aggressive and may even eat newborns. If rabbits cannot scratch, their nails will need to be trimmed occasionally; be careful not to cut the quick. Occasional treatment of injury may be necessary. Total cost per animal per year: G5,000.
Food consumption/day: Rabbits consume about 200grams per day. Green forage (Cameroon, sugar cane, sweet potato leaf, corn husks), proteins (leucaena, mucuna, canavalia), and salts are essential. Give rabbits green sticks to nibble; their teeth never stop growing and need constant filing. Rabbits can be left to graze as long as they are not exposed to extreme heat, predators, or damp conditions. Putting the rabbits’ wire-bottomed cages in the grass during the day is one way to maintain greater control while still allowing grazing. Ensure that the rabbits have shade, water, and protection from predators at all times. Rotate the location of the cages on a daily basis to avoid overgrazing and exposure to their own waste.
Water consumption/day: about 500milliliters per day.
Man hours/day: depending on feeding method, about 5 minutes per animal
Manure production/day: about 100 grams per animal. Waste may be used for compost but is not recommended for biodigestor
Productive lifespan: 2.5 years
Reproduction rate: up to 100 young per year after age 5 months; gestation lasts 1 month and young should be weaned at no more than 1 month of age. Young may be sold as pets or to other farmers. Females older than four months which have been exposed to males should have access to a nesting box lined with hay no more than three weeks later. Move the female to the male’s cage when breeding rabbits, never the other way around.
Meat production at butcher: 1.5kilos per animal at G25,000/kilo
Rabbit (Buck)
Price at purchase: G15,000 for young; G50,000 for adult(6 months)
Infrastructure needed: same as female
Disease prevention: same as female
Food consumption/day: same as female
Water consumption/day: same as female
Man hours/day: same as female
Manure production/day: same as female
Time until maturity:4-6 months
Meat production at butcher: same as female
Fish
Price at purchase: Tilapia cost about G500-1,000 per fish; Carp cost about G1,000-2,000. When they are available, it is beneficial to have more than one type of fish in one pond, since diversity contributes to the strength, stability, and production levels of any ecosystem. Make sure one species is not predatory of the other. Tilapia and carp are the most commonly available species; they get along well together, and they are versatile and hardy.
Infrastructure needed: Preparing the pond before the fish arrive. The pond should allow 1/2meter² per fish. The pond must have a constant source of water, such as a stream. It will also need a drainage point; ideally, it should be on a 2-4% incline to allow for a slow, constant flow of water. The pond should be about half a meter deep at the point of water entry and about 1.5meters deep at the exit end; this gives the fish greater control over their environmental preferences. If there is not already such a pond available, one must be dug, or an existing pond may be modified.
Line a newly dug pond with clay so that it retains water. A pile of clay may also be heaped up in the middle of the pond to form an island. The island will be especially important is ducks will be released onto the pond; it will provide a safe place for them to nest out of the reach of predators.
Then dig a ditch between the water source and the pond to divert water to the pond and allow it to fill. Plant grasses, shrubs, or even small tree species on the banks of the pond and on the island to prevent erosion. Large tree species should be avoided; root growth may break up the banks of the pond and aggravate erosion. For the same reason, avoid allowing large hoofed animals around the pond.
Whether natural or man-made, it will be necessary to install an emergency flood drain in the pond. Bury a pipe longer than the pond wall is wide in the wall of the pond just above the natural water level at the lower end of the pond, near the natural water exit. Cover the end of the pipe on the inside of the pond with wire mesh. This will drain sudden influxes of water, such as a rainstorm, thus preventing the pond from overflowing and taking your fish with it.
Disease control: Apply 50-100grams of quicklime (cal viva) per meter squared of water about 20 days before the fish arrive. This will disinfect the pond. Once the disinfection is complete, and as long as there is a continual flow of water (and thus oxygen) in and out of the pond, fish are in little imminent danger. The only other measure that should be taken is the gradual introduction of new fish into the water. Rather than releasing fish directly into the pond, float the bag of water in which they arrive in the pond for 15-30 minutes. Once the temperature of the water in the bag reaches the temperature of the pond water, the bag may be opened and the fish released.
Food consumption/day: About 15 days before the fish arrive, fertilize the pond with manure: 1kg of cow manure per meter², 0.2 kg / m² of chicken manure, or 0.4 kg / m² of pig manure. This will stimulate the growth of the algae which serve as the principal food source of the fish. Algae quantities are excellent when visibility through the water is about 40cm (place a light-colored stick in the water, mark how far down it you can see, and measure it to get a good estimate). If visibility is greater than 40cm, add more manure at 1/10th of the initial dosage. If it is less than 40cm, stop applying the organic material and augment in-flow of stream to renew water. Reevaluate algae levels every 2-3 weeks. Algae consumption can be supplemented with kitchen waste; mango leaves and mandioca skins are excellent. Do not dump more into the water than the fish can eat before it begins to sink; a build-up of food waste lowers the quality of the water.
An excellent high-production combination for the pond is fish with ducks. As mentioned, the duck manure will stimulate growth of the plants in and around the pond which the fish eat. Having both ducks and fish on the pond means both animals will eat with minimal input or effort on the part of the farmer.
Man hours/day:5 minutes
Reproduction rate: For home consumption, buy a mix of male and female fish and allow them to reproduce freely. It will be necessary to remove fish regularly from the pond to prevent overcrowding. Thin out younger fish to allow the remaining ones to reach a larger size.
For sale, it is necessary to separate males and females, since fish that are reproducing will never reach their maximum possible weight. One method for doing this is to have two ponds. In the first pond males and females mix, and reproduction occurs. As fish reach mid-size, they are sexed, and the males are moved to the second pond, where they reach full size for butcher. Unfortunately, sexing fish is extremely difficult. Thus, it is recommended that the novice simply buy a new full stock of all-male fish after every harvest.
Time until maturity: Harvest fish from the pond using a fishing rod or a net. The biggest fish should be harvested from the pond, leaving smaller ones to continue developing. The time it takes fish to reach their maximum weight will vary with temperatures, space, water quality, and food availability; however, 6-8 months is average.
Meat production at butcher:1/2-1kilo for tilapia, 1-2kilos for carp. Fish can be sold at approximately G20,000/kilo depending on species and competing local markets.
Bees
Price at purchase: There is no reason to purchase bees. Bee swarms and established beehives are everywhere and can be easily captured. This can be done at any time of the year, but bees are most easily found and have the best chance for establishment and survival in the bee box if they are captured in spring or summertime. Bees captured in autumn or winter will probably need a continued food source until the following spring, when they can begin gathering food themselves.
Swarms with no established hive are not aggressive. They are often found clinging to a tree branch. Have a clean, dry bee box with all top bars in place near the swarm with a container of honey or sugar water inside. Put a small stick in the liquid to provide a “ramp” up out of the container to help the bees get in and out. Sprinkle the swarm with water—they cannot fly when their wings are wet. If you can find the queen(she is bigger than the other bees, more brightly colored, and is usually in the middle of a mass of bees), put her into a matchbox and close it enough so that she cannot escape. Put the queen—in the matchbox—inside the bee box. Where the queen is, the entire swarm will go. That night, when the entire swarm is inside the box, return and wrap the box well in a white sheet or white paper. Transport to the apiary. Within a couple days the queen should be released from the matchbox. If you think the swarm has not settled into their new home, renew their supply of honey and stop up the entry of the box for a couple days more.
If you cannot find the queen, scoop or shake the bulk of the bees into the box—hopefully the queen will be among them. The bees will appreciate the food and most likely settle in to the bee box. That night, transport the box to the apiary and stop up the entryway for a couple days until the bees have settled in. If you are not able to get the bee box to where the swarm is, you may scoop the bees into a box or bag and transport them to their apiary. Once again, provide a supply or honey or sugar water and close up the box’s entryway until the bees have settled in.
To avoid contact with the bees, you may simply leave the baited bee box—with the lid in place—near the swarm and hope that they are attracted by the food source and available living space. Remember, swarms are bees on the hunt for a place to build a hive.
It is also possible to capture and already-established beehive. The processes are much the same as those described above, except that instead of placing a bait cup of honey or sugar in the bee box, the bee’s own wax combs are transferred to the bee box. Bees which have a hive are much more defensive. Smoke the hive well before opening it to calm the bees. Cut out each comb and tie them onto the top bars of the bee box. Make sure to hang them in the same direction that they were hanging in the original hive(note that the cells of the combs angle slightly upwards. The hives containing larva are the most important to transfer. Also include one comb of honey for every two combs of larva. The combs of larva should be toward the center of the box, and the combs of honey toward each end. It is not necessary to fill all the top bars, but it is important to have all the top bars in place, so that future combs will be built onto them. Any excess combs of honey may be placed in a covered bucket. Once the combs are transferred, move the bees to the box and the box to the apiary as described above, capturing the queen if possible. Cleanup the former hive location well, and remove anything coated with honey or any left-over combs from the area; this will help prevent the bees from returning to their former home.
Once you have a well-established hive of bees, it is possible to divide the hive rather than seeking out a new wild swarm or hive. This should only be done in springtime, when the bees will have time to gain numbers again before winter. It should also only be done to a hive which is very strong; a strong hive is typically more aggressive, is producing a lot of honey, and is starting to be crowded in the hive.
Divide a hive at mid-morning. Smoke the hive, open it, and transfer about half of the combs of larva (and one comb of honey for every comb of larvae) to the new box. Place the new box in the same position and direction that the old box was in. Move the old box, with all the bees and the remaining combs inside, to a new location in the apiary and facing a different direction. This method works because about half of the bees go out in search of food during the day. In the evening, these bees will return to the NEW hive (remember that bees know where home by the direction the box is facing) thinking it is the same one they left. Sensing the absence of a queen, they will replace her with one of the unborn larva. Meanwhile, the old hive (now in its new location) will continue on as usual; different bees will take over the task of going out in search of food, and since they are leaving for hive for the first time, they will never know that its location has been changed.
Infrastructure needed: Beekeeping requires a fair amount of equipment, although much of it can be made at home. Loose white clothing tied at the wrists and ankles; a wide brimmed hat; a net over the head; and closed shoes will prevent most stings. Specialty stores sell jumpers with the hat and net attached which are ideal. Gloves can also be worn, although they impede some of the finer work necessary in the hive. Wearing fitted rubber kitchen gloves provides some protection while still allowing movement.
A bee box with top bars will also be needed. Again, these can be purchased, or they can be made at home. Bees can make a home in a wide variety of containers, including old barrels, logs, or homemade boxes. The only absolute necessity is the top bars. They should be easily accessible from a removable roof, and each one must measure between 3.2 and 3.5cm in width. Bees need about 9mm to pass comfortable between two objects. In their hive, bees leave this amount of “bee space” between each comb, wall, or other object. They tend to fill spaces larger than this with comb; spaces smaller than this they fill in with propolis. Combs measure 2.6-2.9cm. Thus, a top bar of said measure will allow just enough room for one comb and one bee space. Having exactly one comb attached to each top bar will make individual comb revision and harvest easy and minimally damaging to the hive. If, however, the top bars are thinner or wider than 3.2-3.5cm, the combs will overlap one or more bars, and removing one comb at a time undamaged will be impossible.
Establish an apiary. Look for a grove of high brush or trees to protect the bees from strong wind and sun. A water source is necessary, even if only a leaky faucet; it should be no more than a mile away, but the closer the better. That said, the apiary should never be in a muddy or damp area, and there should be good ventilation. Finally, the apiary should be at a distance from homes, corralled animals, and children’s play areas. Have small tables prepared on which to place bee boxes; they should be tall enough that frogs cannot jump up on them, and the tops should not be so big that extra space is left around the edges of the bee box. Put cups of motor oil, cups of water, or piles of ash around the legs of the table to deter ants.
Boxes should be placed in the apiary with the entryway facing roughly east; this way the bees will begin working everyday at first light, increasing their honey production. That said, boxes should also all face at different angles; the direction of the entryway in relation to the sun is how bees differentiate their hive from others. For the same reason, you should not alter the direction a bee box is facing once a hive has established itself.
In winter, beehives may need to be covered with Styrofoam, plastic, or blankets to help insulate the bees against the cold. Do not block the entryway, but reduce its size. Weak hives may need to be given honey or sugar water in wintertime; place this near the entryway in a location where it will not attract other animals or insects.
You will also find a soft brush, a smoker, and a small crowbar useful. Again, all of these tools can be made at home (instead of a brush, for example, use a bunch of leaves to gently brush bees off of a comb). Purchased smokers, however, are extremely useful, as they permit a slow smoldering of their contents, allow smoke to be directed precisely where you need it to go, and can be held in one hand.
Medical care needed/year: A healthy hive should be able to defend itself from predators and unwanted residents. The best form of disease prevention is to keep hives in the conditions described here. Watch for dead bees in the bottom of the box, bees with unsteady steps, or bees with white spots on their backs; these are signs of disease. Parts of the combs seem diseases, remove and destroy these combs. Move the remaining healthy part of the hive to a new, clean box.
Food consumption/day: Bees will take advantage of the nearest sources of pollen, nectar, and propolis available to them. The honey will reflect the quality and taste of these sources; thus, it is ideal that there be a variety of melliferous trees and flowers surrounding the hive. To ensure high-quality honey, is particularly important that there be melliferous plants in the very near vicinity of the hives if there is a sugar processing factory or a sugarcane field nearby.
Melliferous species include Eucalyptus, Grevillea, lupino, and pigeon pea. Plant these now if you are planning on starting an apiary.
Water consumption/day: Bees need water to cool the hive and to produce honey. The closer and more abundant their water source is, the more honey they will be able to produce.
Man hours/day: Except during harvest time, bees need only be looked in on once every week or so. Open hives only on warm, sunny days at mid-morning; this is when the most number of bees will be out of the hive. Smoke the hive before opening it. Pull out the combs one by one, brush off the bees gently, and have a look. Move those filled with only honey to the outer edges of the bee box and those with larva or larva and honey toward the inside. Watch for any predators or signs of sickness. Ensure that water source remains available.
Productive lifespan: A queen bee will be a productive egg layer for one to two years. The queen is getting old when combs of larvae have many cells left empty. The hive will, in time, replace an unproductive queen; in this sense a hive can produce indefinitely. You can speed the process, however, by killing her yourself.
Hive production: Honey can be harvested at least twice a year; once in December and once in March. Honey that is ready to harvest is in combs with capped cells. Do not harvest honey in open cells or honey that is on a comb with larva. At the second harvest, be sure to leave at least one comb of honey (capped or not) for every two combs of larva to ensure that the bees survive the winter.
Production varies widely according to how warm and sunny the summer was, the strength of the hive, and the proximity of food and water sources. Hives that were divided or newly established will produce less honey. On average, a farmer can expect to harvest 16 liters of honey per hive at first harvest and 10 liters at second harvest. The second harvest is expected to be less since enough honey must be left for the bees to survive the winter.
If working with a purchased bee box, a centrifuge is the best way to harvest honey. This allows the honey to be removed without damaging the combs, thus reducing the effort on the bee’s part to rebuild the wax combs. The dry combs should be returned to the hive after the first harvest. After second harvest, it is better to return only a few to the hive, and keep the rest in a place where other insects will not be able to access them. Return them to the hive the following spring.
If a centrifuge is not available, the combs can simply be cut from the top bars. Leave the top 1-2inches of the comb attached to the top bar; this will serve as a guide for new comb construction. Put the combs in a covered bucket and remove it from the apiary. The caps may be sliced off the combs, the combs placed on screen, and the honey left to drip out, first on one side and then the other; this is a long process, but leaves the combs intact for future use. Otherwise, wring out the combs of honey inside a thin cloth. This will result in a ball of wax and impurities inside the cloth and the clean honey outside the cloth.
Whatever method you use, separate honey from the combs in a closed room or at night; otherwise the bees will smell their honey and come looking for it. Store honey in clean air-tight containers at room temperature in a dark area. Avoid dipping fingers or used or dirty utensils into the honey jars. Honey kept in this manner lasts indefinitely.
Wax, pollen, and propolis are important by-products of the beehive. Put dirty wax in a pot of hot water. Allow it to melt completely, then remove from the heat and let it cool undisturbed. The clean wax will rise, and the dirt will sink. Once the wax has hardened, cut the dirt off the bottom of the block. Clean wax may be used to polish and fill wood, seal string and cloth, and make candles and a variety of health and beauty products.
Pollen consumption is a proven treatment and prevention of seasonal allergies. The easiest way to consume it is simply by chewing pieces of the comb itself. Pollen is found in cells around honey or larva, and is powdery and bright yellow.
Propolis is an extremely sticky, dark paste that bees use to fill in cracks and spaces in the beehive. Propolis is what makes a small crowbar occasionally necessary to remove top bars from the hive during revisions. It is a good idea to remove propolis that impedes on hive revisions. Don’t throw it away; it is a very valuable health product.
Also keep in mind the increasing market for honey in combs. While more difficult to package, this product can be sold at almost double the price of honey since it reassures the buyer that the product has not been mixed with molasses or other contaminants.
Quails
Price at purchase: Adults G10,000. Chicks are not recommended for purchase as they have a low survival rate.
Infrastructure needed: Conditions similar to that of chickens, although on a smaller scale. Quails are more predisposed to disease from inclement conditions than most other fowl. They need protection from cold, dustiness, dampness, and exposure to their own waste. Predators include rats, so finely-spaced mesh fencing is required. To maximize production, keep them in a lighted area at night; they will continue eating and also keep warmer.
Raised cages of fine mesh are a good option since they allow waste (but not eggs) to fall to a collection area below and also protect these small birds from predators and the elements. Make sure cages are in a well-ventilated area in summer and a draft-free area in winter. Bringing cages indoors at night is often preferable; ensure that rats cannot reach through the wire cages to the birds.
Disease prevention: vitamin supplement (such as Vitagold, see section on rabbit) in water during three consecutive days, two times per year.
Food consumption/day:30 grams per animal. Recommended diet is same as for chickens. Grains and worms must be ground.
Water consumption/day:30milliliters per animal
Man hours/day:20 minutes for the flock
Manure production/day:20 grams per animal
Productive lifespan:2 years
Egg production/year: about 300 per animal
Reproduction rate: If given access to a nest, quails may sit on their eggs and hatch chicks. However, a fairly constant warm temperature is necessary for fetuses to develop properly. It is more likely that the chicks will hatch if the eggs are incubated indoors. Gestation lasts 16 to 17 days.
Meat production at butcher:100 grams per quail.
Worm bed
Price at purchase: The best species of composting worm is the California Red Worm. Since they are indigenous to North America, these worms are very difficult and expensive to purchase on the market. Fortunately, these worms reproduce very rapidly, and there are many people with thriving California Red Worm beds who are more than willing to lend or give away a starter population. Ask around as to who may have some; many Peace Corps Volunteers maintain a worm bed or know someone who does.
Infrastructure needed: Worm beds are long and low rectangular boxes with bottoms and sides, but no closed top. They should be built about 1meter wide, 30centimeters tall, and up to 20meters long (these measurements will produce a bed 6meters³). Brick or stone is ideal, since it will not deteriorate with time. However, logs, metal sheeting, and any number of other materials may be used. The beds should be placed in semi-sun, and should have loose covers (metal or plastic sheeting works well) that keep out rain but do not prevent air circulation. Build several beds depending on how much compost will need to be processed into worm hummus.
Disease prevention: Worms are principally preyed upon by ants and birds. The aforementioned loose cover will keep out the birds. Ants can be prevented by sprinkling ash around the bases or on top of the walls of the worm beds. It is even feasible to sprinkle small amounts onto the compost itself, since ash is not harmful to worms. However, do not use any ant deterrent in or around the worm bed which may harm the worms.
Food consumption: Transfer compost to the worm bed when you have enough to fill the bed. Distribute the worms over the top of the compost, and loosely cover the worm bed to protect against rain, sunlight, and birds. Depending on the number of worms and the amount of compost, it will take approximately three months for the worms to convert the compost completely to hummus. Check in occasionally; the hummus is ready to be harvested when it is black, crumbly, and has no odor.
Water consumption: Worms need a moist environment to survive and to help protect them against ants. That being said, worms also breathe through their skin. Thus, while the compost must remain moist, it should never be soggy. A good way to measure the moisture content is to squeeze a fistful of the compost in your hand. If it keeps its form when you open your hand, the moisture levels are sufficient. If it crumbles apart, the compost needs to be watered.
Man hours/week: 5-10minutes
Hummus production: 100,000 worms in a bed that measures 3meters³ will produce 150kilos of hummus per year. When the hummus is ready to be harvested, place a pile of new compost on top of the hummus along the length of the worm bed. The pile should be about 15centimeters tall and about 30 centimeters wide. Water the new compost well. In two to three days, gather us the new compost from on top the hummus. You will find that nearly all the worms are inside of it; transfer them to a new bed of compost. Finally, gather up the hummus. It may be directly applied to the field or garden, or it may be stored in bags. Hummus that is to be stored should first be spread out on a floor or plastic sheeting to dry.
Productive lifespan: Worms reproduce according to the amount of space and food available. Given these two things, a worm bed can continue on indefinitely.
Reproduction rate: Given sufficient food and space, worms duplicate in number every 3 months. Thus, 1,000 worms will become 16,000 over the course of a year.
Plants
Pasture
For most people, a pasture is nothing more than a field of grass; for many, it is a lost opportunity to plant crops. These are unfortunate misconceptions, for in fact, a well-managed pasture is more valuable to the permaculture farmer than any field crop could ever be. Animals that graze in pastures full of a variety of forage crops and grasses—such as those mentioned in the section on cows—receive all or nearly all of their nutritional needs. These animals produce lean, tender meat and high-quality milk.
Additionally, pastures give animals the opportunity to harvest their food themselves. This means less work for farmers. It also means that each animal can consume the foods that most appeal to them; just like humans, animals instinctively seek out foods which contain the nutrients their bodies are lacking at that particular time.
Pastures also help the soil. A plot of land in a crop rotation will benefit greatly from being converted to pasture for one, two, or more years. Crop pest cycles will be broken, the grasses will aerate the soil and provide organic matter, and the animal manure will dramatically increase nutrient and organic matter levels. Additionally, the strong root networks of the grasses will defend lands predisposed to erosion.
Finally, pastures improve crop growth. In tropical climates, 80-85% of all plant nutrients are held in vegetation. This means that trees, shrubs, and grasses planted among and around crops greatly increase the productivity of the crops; the fallen leaves and root masses are essential for delivering the nutrients that result in long-term high-quality crop production. (Mollison) Green manure crops (leucaena, canavalia, pigeon pea, mucuna, and others) are particularly beneficial.
Land can be used as pasture on a rotational basis with crops, as mentioned above, or it can be made into permanent pasture land. The longer land remains as pasture, the healthier the soil will become, the better the forage crops will establish themselves, and the better the pasture will meet the nutritional needs of the animals. For this reason, permaculture systems often feature prominent amounts of pasture land, and minimal areas of crop production.
To convert a recently-harvested field to pasture, the best way to start is often to let the animals into the field. They will consume any crop remains, will enrich the soil with manure, and will break up the soil surface with their hooves. This process will also be beneficial for existing pastures that are not yet diverse enough to provide a complete diet to animals. The fertilization and aeration that the animals provide will prime the soil for seeding of forage crops. Be careful not to allow the animals to overgraze the existing forage to the point of killing it.
Once the land has been prepared, forage crop seeds can be dispersed. For tropical climates, Cameroon, pigeon pea, leucaena, and moringa should definitely be included. Canavalia, sugar cane, sunflower, mucuna, and sweet potato are also good additions. All of these plants grow rapidly and in a variety of conditions. When planting, the seeds can be intermixed at random. Alternatively, they may be roughly grouped in various areas of the pasture. The latter option will allow better monitoring of the seeds’ viability. It will also make it easier to provide the environmental needs or special care that each plant may need as it begins to grow, such as full sun, partial shade, sandy soil, high humidity, etc. The result should be a pasture completely covered in grasses; no soil should be exposed.
Forage trees and shrubs will also be an indispenible part of the pasture. These species ensure that adequate forage is available to the animals, even is seasons when the grass dies back due to cold or drought. They will also provide shade and windbreak in inclement weather. Finally, they will improve soil quality by aerating the soil, pulling nutrients up from deep soil layers, acting as green manures, and dropping organic material which will serve as ground cover and compost. Leguminous, fruit-bearing, and pod-bearing species are ideal; they will provide high-energy forage, vitamins, and nutrients to the farm animals. Put these trees and shrubs just outside the pasture boundries, or, if they are within the pasture, protect their trunks from the animals with fencing or a dense layer of prickly shrubs. Take advantage of the space left under the trees by planting ground-cover herbs and green manures, vining plants, and shade-tolerant species, as described in the “Tree” section below.
Double-fencing systems are one way to increase the efficiency of trees lining the pastures. In double fencing, a space of 5 to 15 meters is left between two pastures (or other fenced-off areas of the farm. In the corridor between the two fences, a miniature forest system, as described in further detail in the “Tree” section below, is developed. Large trees are planted in the center of the corridor to serve as windbreak. Closer toward the fences, a variety of leguminous, pod-bearing, and fruit-bearing species are planted: leucaena, inga, and papaya, for example. These provide forage to the animals in the pasture. Up against each fence, tough grass or shrub species are planted to prevent animals from crossing the fences. Underneath the trees, shade-tolerant smaller trees species are placed. Finally, the ground level is utilized to plant ground cover, green manures, small shade-tolerant shrubs, and vining plants which will climb up the trees. This enclosed corridor becomes a shelter for wild animals which provide natural services to the farm. It acts as a windbreak and controls extreme cold and extreme heat in the area. It produces forage and shade for the animals in the pasture nearby. Finally, smaller farm animals, such as rabbits and poultry, can be left to graze for grasses, insects, and fallen fruits and seeds in the this area.
If the pasture does not abound with forage crops, grasses, and trees, the animals will spend more time looking for their food than eating it. This will result in less nutritional intake and, as a result, less meat or milk product of a lower quality. For farm animals to thrive and produce on foraging alone, make sure the pastures offer all the food the animals can eat and more, every day. It is especially important to incorporate leguminous forage crops into the pasture. Plants such as pigeon pea, mucuna, canavalia, lupino, and other provide proteins essential to animals’ energy and production levels. These are especially important for milk-producing females. If protein-rich species are not available in abundance in the pasture, the animal’s diet may need to be supplemented with grains (oats, wheat, and corn), proteins (soy), or root crops greens(sweet potato, turnip, beets, etc.).
Animals can begin grazing the pasture once the grasses are all at least 1 foot high. Animals may be tied or fenced in a particular area of pasture. Make sure the animals have protection from sun, wind, rain, cold, and predators. Pastures grazed by multiple species yield more forage than single-species pastures. Each species consumes distinct types of plants, distinct species of plants, and even distinct parts of the plant. For example, while cows consume almost exclusively grasses, goats prefer woody trees and shrubs, and fowl will concentrate on insects and manure left by the other animals. By introducing various species into a pasture, the various resources the pasture has to offer are more fully utilized.
The pasture should be rested—and the animals rotated to another pasture area—when the grass levels begin to fall below 6 inches. Grasses should never be eaten down to less than 3 inches. A recently grazed pasture should be allowed 14-20 days for re-growth—no more and no less. If less than 14 days is allowed, the plants will not have had sufficient time to recuperate. If more than 20 are allowed, the plant’s leaf growth cycle, in the absence of the “trimming” the animals provide, will reach completion, and energy will be rerouted to flowering and seeds. Seeds and flowers are far less digestible for ruminants; keeping forage crops in their leafing stage is, thus, important in maximizing the animals’ nutritional intakes. Observe pastures closely, especially when grazing cycles are first initiated. Watch for any plants which are being grazed faster than they can re-grow, bare spots of exposed soil, flowering or seeding of the forage plants, weed growth, or any other indications of an imbalance between the pasture’s production and the animals’ consumption. Increase or decrease the frequency with which the animals graze in that area, and reseed exposed soil, as necessary.
Below is an example rotational grazing pasture system. Double-fencing has been established along the contour lines. Trees and other forage shrubs and grasses have also been planted within each strip of pasture. Fences running down the contour divide the resulting strips into square areas of pasture. Animal may be moved along the contour or between the contour to allow the pastures to rest as needed:
GatesBased on designs courtesy of Mollison
This is another double-fenced rotational pasture set-up. The corrals have been placed in the center of the pastures with access doors to all four. There are also gates between each pasture. A water tank collects rainwater from the corral roof and routes it out to water troughs in each pasture:
Water tank with pipes to troughs
Access road
Corral
Double fencing rotational pasture system
Gates between pastures
Based on design courtesy of Mollison
Green Manures
Green manures are plants which add, rather than take away, nutrients from the soil. Often these plants have deep-reaching roots. These roots aerate the soil and pull nutrients up from depths where most plant roots cannot penetrate. These nutrients are then stored in the root system of the green-manure plant. When the plant dies, the nutrients are released, becoming available for use by other plants.
Several green manure species also serve as excellent forage crops for animals, such as leucaena, hovenia, sunflower, pigeon pea, mucuna, and canavalia. Green manures are also typically quick-growing, hardy plants, and are capable of growing in soils where other plants cannot survive. Additionally, they provide a lot of organic matter as ground cover, and their strong roots control erosion. For these reasons, green manures are excellent plants with which to begin a permaculture farm. They quickly improve the soil, preparing it for other plants, and in the process provide forage for the farm’s animals.
Some green manures, such as black oats, mucuna, and canavalia, are annuals: they complete their life cycle in less than one year and must be replanted every season. Most of them, including red bean, crotalaria, mucuna, and canavalia, are planted in spring to summer. Lupino, black oats, and forage turnip are planted in fall to winter. These plants produce a lot of seeds. The seeds, and oftentimes the whole plant, are excellent as animal forage. Leave plant leftovers on the ground as organic matter and ground cover; roots left in the soil will continue to control erosion.
If green manures are planted for the sole purpose of soil recuperation, they need to be cut just before they begin to produce flowers. This is because as flowers and seeds begin to develop, the nutrients the plant has been storing up in its roots are redirected to flower and seed development. Leave the cut plants on the ground; they will serve as ground cover and organic matter for the soil. Leave the roots in the ground; they will continue to control erosion and release their stored nutrients to other plants. Even when for purposes of soil improvement, however, leave some of the plants to go to seed; this will provide you with seeds to plant next season.
If both soil recuperation and animal forage are needed, cut some plants throughout the area before they seed; leave others to flower and go to seed. The soil will benefit, and there will still be enough seed to feed the animals and replant the following season.
Other green manures, such as pigeon pea and leucaena, have life cycles of 5 years or longer. These trees and shrubs are planted in spring to summer. They do not need to be cut down in order for them to provide nutrients to other plants. Their leaves and seeds are also highly nutritive forage crops for animals. Pigeon pea is also a human food source.
Garden
As long as they are kept in a cool place, many vegetables can be planted as early as December in South America, offering a prolonged season of fresh produce. The most common vegetables which tolerate summer heat include: green beans, eggplant, bell peppers, squash, tomato, summer lettuce, carrots, chives, spinach, cucumbers, radishes, and nearly all herbs, aromatics, and flowers. To begin planting, mix good-quality soil (hummus is ideal) with equal parts sand. Sterilize the mix with boiled water. Let the soil drain and dry off a bit. Then fill planters (these should have drainage holes in the bottom) and add seeds; seeds should be planted at a depth about three times their width. Pack the soil down lightly and water the seeds. Never water so much that the soil stays soggy; this will predispose the seedlings to disease. Keep the planters in a dark place until sprouts appear; then move them to partial sun (remember to keep them in a cool place). Note: root vegetables, like potatoes and carrots, should be planted in directly into the garden.
Many vegetables as well as field crops ripen all at once rather than fruit by fruit. It is best to plant these species every few weeks or months so that the harvest is staggered over a long period, rather than having to be collected all at once and stored. Below is a chart of how often some of the most common garden vegetables and field crops should be planted in subtropical climates in order to provide for continuous family consumption of fresh products throughout the growing season. Use the calculation method outlines in the field crops section to determine how much seed should be sown to suffice for family and animal consumption:
Vegetable/Crop
Planting Frequency
Planting Season
Lettuce, radish, spinach
15 days
All year
Bell pepper, tomato, baby squash
30 days
All year
Broccoli, cauliflower, beets, cabbage
45 days
Fall, winter, spring
Green bean, carrots, squash
45 days
All year
Chard, parsley, potato
Summer and winter
All year
Red corn (grain), white corn (flour)
Month
All year
Sweet corn, fresh beans, butter beans
15-22 days
All year
Dry beans
Month
All year
Mandioca, sweet potato, peanuts
Year
All year
Onions, peas
Month
Fall, winter, spring
Garlic
Year
Fall
If you are doing it several months in advance, sheet mulching is a much less strenuous and more effective form of preparing the soil; no shovel is required. In this method, slash any large plants and leave them lay on the ground. Then, without any further digging, leveling, or weeding, sprinkle the area over with manure, blood, or bone meal, decaying leaves or lawn clippings, and some food wastes. There should be both wet and dry components. If there are compost worms available, add a few of them in. Now cover the area over with banana leaves, newspaper, cardboard, old non-synthetic clothes, or any other material of organic origin. Make sure there are no spaces for weeds to grow through. Water this layer well, and cover it with about 7.5cm (4 inches) of manure or decomposing plant material combine with dried leaves or grass. Finally, top the sheet mulch off with 15cm (8 inches) of dry material, such as dried grass or leaves, straw, bark, woodchips, or sawdust. Water very well again. If there are not regular rain showers, water the sheet mulch on occasion to encourage bacterial growth and decomposition.
After one season, the garden space will have a thick layer of soil perfect for garden vegetables. If this soil is maintained, the sheet mulch process will never need to be repeated. Maintenance is simple; just sprinkle compost materials, including some dry plant matter, lime, and manure, blood, kitchen scraps, or bone meal, over the surface of the soil once in a while.
If you have not completed the sheet mulching process in advance, and it is already time to plant the garden, double digging will work as well. This process is more strenuous. Excavate one shovel width of soil over the entire area to be planted. Areas that will serve as footpaths between beds and fenced borders need not be dug. Loosen the soil down another shovel width. Now mix the removed soil with plenty of compost materials, including wet and dry plant matter, manure, lime, kitchen scraps, and bone or blood. Return this fertilized soil back on top of the loosened layer. The garden beds should now be visibly higher than the footpaths; this will allow root growth and better soil drainage. Tap down the sides of these raised beds so that they do not crumble out into footpaths. Do not step on the beds or pack them down in any way. As long as the soil is not packed down again, double digging need not be repeated every year or season.
Plants can be transplanted to the garden once they have 6 to 8 leaves. Dig a hole longer bigger than the container the plant is in, or, if the roots are exposed, longer than the root. Put some compost, hummus, or other natural fertilizer in the bottom of the hole. Remove the plant from the container with the soil if possible to avoid disturbing the root mass. Hold the plant inside the hole so that the roots do not touch the bottom or sides; the root mass should be well below ground level. Fill in around the root mass with soil. Hill up soil around the stem of the plant, and put some dry leaves or other organic matter around the plant so that the leaves stay up off the soil. Water the plant very well, avoiding plastering the leaves down.
In summer, it will be necessary to keep them under partial shade. The cheapest way to do this is to construct a trellis over the garden on which to lay leafy tree branches. Water deeply and regularly. Continue to pile soil covered with dry organic matter up around the stems of the plants regularly to avoid erosion around the roots and so that the leaves do not touch the soil. Tomatoes, lima beans, cucumbers, sponge plants, grape, and other vines will need poles to grow properly.
Insects can be deterred from the garden by interplanting the vegetables and herb species. The strong aromas of oregano, chive, rosemary, citronella, onion, pepper, and garlic, for example, protect delicate fruits. Also try planting marigolds and geraniums throughout the garden; they release chemicals into the soil which kill parasites, deter pests, and improve soil quality. Herbs are best grown from cuts of existing plants. Ask the neighbors; some common species include basil, oregano, mint, chive, sage, thyme, rosemary, citronella, cedron, burrito, tilo, boldo, chamomile, and valerian.
Interplanting plays an important role in the vegetable garden. Almost any mingles of more than one species in the same area will reduce insect damage and weeds, and many species actually complement and speed each other’s growth. Onion, garlic, basil, bell pepper, and oregano produce more rapid tomato growth and protect the delicate fruits from predators. Corn, beans, and potatoes or pumpkins all work well together, as do lettuce, parsley, and carrots. Avoid planting garlic and onion near any species of bean. Potatoes should not be placed near melons, pumpkins, zucchini, or cucumber. Carrots do not do well with dill, and tomatoes do not get along with potatoes, corn, or the cabbage family. In all cases, think about the speed of growth, adult plant size, and nutrients needs of each species. Make sure species planted together will not be competing for light, nutrients, or space.
Ant infestations can be controlled by sprinkling ash on the soil. Prevent and control all kinds of insects with natural repellants; make several liters of tea out of garlic, onion, chili, black pepper, and any other strong-smelling spice. Leave the tea sit as long as you like; then strain, add a bit of dish detergent (this helps it to stick to the plant leaves), and sprinkle on plants. Repeat after rains. Note that onion and garlic inhibit growth of all bean species. Do not plant them near each other or apply garlic or onion tea to bean species.
To discourage weed growth, utilize all the soil available for desirable plants. Construct natural barriers against creeping grasses and weeds by planting several rows of fast-growing or ground cover species close together around the borders of the garden, such as sweet potato, sunflower, squash, comfrey, pineapple, and geranium. Herb species, such as those previously mentioned, can be planted in-between vegetable plants and around borders of the garden and paths to discourage weed growth as well. Also try interplanting slow and fast growing crops. For instance, turnips and carrots can be planted very close together; the turnips will mature and be harvested before the carrots begin to compete with them for space. The same practice can be applied to lettuce and broccoli.
Crops
Annual field crops are much less prominent on permaculture farms than on monoculture farms. Nevertheless, they do play an important role in providing grains and legumes for human and animal consumption on the farm. To determine how much land on the farm should be devoted to field crops, calculate the family’s approximate consumption of that crop per year. Divide this number by the production per hectare of that particular crop. For every 1/10 of a hectare that will need to be planted to meet the family’s needs, plant 1 line of 100 meters of that crop. This calculation method can be used equally well for breeding animals; butchering; and planting gardens, forests, orchards, and pastures. Below is a chart which provides example calculations for a family of eight with 30 chickens, three cows, and three chickens. Each farm will have distinct production rates, consumption rates, and preferred crops. Work with families individually to determine their crop cultivation needs:
Average Consumption per week per year
Production
(yearly consumption / production)Area Needed
Grains&Legumes
Red bean
2 kg
104 kg
1000 kg/ha
10 lines of 100m
Mandioca
128 kg
6656 kg
20.000 kg/ha
33 lines of 100m
Yellow corn
10,5 kg
546 kg
2000 kg/ha
27 lines of 100m
Peanut
2 kg
104 kg
400 kg/ha
26 lines of 100m
Butter bean
2 kg
104 kg
1000 kg/ha
10 lines of 100m
Vegetables
Onion
1,5 kg
78 kg
40.000 kg/ha
0,2 lines of 100m
Tomato
2 kg
104 kg
90.000 kg/ha
0,1 lines of 100m
Bell Pepper
1 kg
52 kg
2000 kg/ha
3 lines of 100m
Melon
variable
120 kg
10.000 kg/ha
1,2 lines of 100m
Wood
variable
500 kg
????
2 large trees
30 Chickens:
Red corn
15 kg
780 kg
3000 kg/ha
26 lines of 100m
Pigeon pea
7,5 kg
390 kg
500 kg/ha
78 lines of 100m
3 Cows:
Elephant grass
800 kg
41.600 kg
100.000 kg/ha
42 lines of 100m
3 Pigs:
Mandioca
24 kg
1248 kg
20.000 kg/ha
6 lines of 100m
Pigeon pea
7,5 kg
390 kg
500 kg/ha
78 lines of 100m
Total Area:
112 lines planted for family
230 lines planted for animals
Total:
3.42 ha(342 lines of 100m)
Table courtesy of Mog
Fill fields with as many distinct species as possible. As in other parts of a permaculture, diverse fields will improve production, deter pests, encourage natural services from the surrounding ecosystems, provide a wide food variety to the family and the farm animals, and minimize investment of fertilizers, pesticides, and labor. Interplant crops wherever possible; many species complement each other’s growth cycles and nutrient needs. Well known complements include corn and red bean, corn and peanut, corn and sweet potato, sugar cane and bean, mandioca and pigeon pea, and mandioca with corn. Rotate which crops are grown in which field every season. Leaf crops (tobacco, sugar cane), grain crops (corn, peanut, beans), and root crops (mandioca, sweet potato) each require distinct types of nutrients from the soil to grow well. Avoid placing the same type of crop in the same field repeatedly so that the field will have time to recuperate the nutrients that the plants have used. Plant green manures and natural insect-repelling herbs and flowers in between rows. Ground cover plants such as mucuna and comfrey, shade-tolerant bushes like coffee, and vining plants such as sponge, kiwi, and grape take full advantage of space that crops may not exploit. In the off seasons, plant winter green manures such as black oats; these will be essential feed sources for farm animals. Plant deep-rooted trees with open canopies throughout the field to pull nutrients from deep within the soil, provide soil cover and organic matter, and guard against erosion and drying of the soil. Convert a field that has been harvested several years in a row into pasture.
If crops are being planted on an incline, always plant lines of crops across the incline rather than down it. Periodically plant a row of trees across the incline to control soil erosion and aide in rain absorption. If the field is exposed to strong winds, plant 3-5 staggered rows of trees on the prevalent wind side of the field to protect delicate crops. Trees can also be used to form live fences around fields; if they are planted close together and accompanied by several rows of a spiny ground plant, such as pineapple, animals will not enter the field. Utilize the plant remains of harvested crops. Leftover shucks, stalks, leaves, and vines are excellent food for animals, soil cover and organic matter, or additions to the compost pile.
Trees
Trees are an essential investment in any farm. Trees prevent erosion, provide shade, preserve cool air in summer and warm air in winter, reserve water supplies, and provide organic matter to the soil. Fruit trees provide important nutrition to both the family and farm animals. Tree trimmings can also be used as food for animals and fuel for fires. Trees also provide food and habitat to bees, wild birds, and wild animals; all of these creatures will bring environmental services to the farm. Wood can be utilized to build animal shelters, buildings, tools, and furniture. Plant trees in every nook and corner of the farmland possible. On poor soils, rocks areas, steep inclines, and anywhere else where other farm activities cannot or are not being realized, the farmer should not fail to plant trees.
Live trees can also make up an important part of the infrastructure of the farm. Three to five staggered rows of trees create an effective windbreak for areas of the farm exposed to strong winds. Lines of trees serve as living fence posts; if the trees are planted very close together, or an understory of prickly bushes are grown along with them, wire may not even be necessary. Plant trees along contour lines (lines perpendicular to the incline) on hills to control erosion, excess drying of the soil, or flooding in the valley below. Trees can divide pastures, separate different parts of the farm, or mark the property line. They can also serve to block unwanted views. Without a doubt, plant trees on steep slopes, especially those that are rocky or exposed to wind.
Groups of trees, such as orchards or forests, are also an indispensible part of any farm property. Ten to fifteen percent of any farm should be forested to provide sufficient oxygen flow to the farm. These trees will also provide fruits, nuts, cool air, and wood for fire, carpentry, and other needs. To reforest or afforest an area, begin with green manure trees and ground cover, such as leucaena, inga, acacias, and hovenia. These species are fast-growing and will build soil health. Then begin adding in the other desired tree species in clumps. This planting pattern will provide the most protection to the saplings; individual trees tend to get trampled, wind stripped, eaten, or forgotten. Water the saplings and cut back weeds around their bases until they are well established.
Groups of trees should always feature various species, heights, and shade covers. For example, planting coconut (tall), papaya(medium-tall), citrus (medium), guava (medium-low), and coffee (low) in close proximity will take maximum advantage of a minimal ground space by exploiting vertical space as well. When deciding at what distance to plant trees, think about the light needs of those near the bottom and the shade cover provided by those near the top. Coconut and papaya cast little shade on smaller trees below; guava and citrus have an open canopy that let in some light; coffee is shade tolerant. Plant male and female fruit trees of the same species near to each other to facilitate pollination. Include melliferous species, such as Grevillea, Eucalyptus, Pigeon pea, and Lupino nearby to attract bees. Avoid having grasses growing in orchards and forests. Instead, plant shade-tolerate, grass resistant ground covers. Examples include sweet potato, mandioca, comfrey, and pineapple; pest-deterring herbs and flowers such as marigolds, geraniums, dill, lemongrass, mint, garlic, chives, etc; and green manures such as lupino, mucuna, and canavalia. Also try planting vines, such as grape, kiwi, and sponge; these will further take advantage of vertical space by climbing up the trees out into the light.
Whether planting orchards, or utilizing trees in the fields and pastures, keep in mind that the trees will need more and more room as they get bigger. Except when creating live fences and barriers, trees of the same mature height should be planted about 3 meters apart. Also consider what effects the trees will have on the plant species around them, and how these effects can be best utilized. Trees with shallow root systems, for example, may out-compete understory trees, crops or grasses; they should not be planted along gardens or fields. Special care should be taken to establish a ground cover around these trees, such as mint, comfrey, or sweet potato, for example, to avoid weed growth. Trees with deep root systems, on the other hand, will bring nutrients up from below that will aide in the development of smaller plants. Yvyra ju, for example, is a green manure with deep root systems and a very open canopy which provides little shade; thus, it is excellent for planting throughout fields to provide organic matter, soil cover, and nutrients from the soil to crops. Trees also affect animal movement; Paraiso, for example, is quick-growing, provides lots of shade, and is very bitter; cows will not eat it. These features make it excellent for marking fence lines between pastures or other areas when the farm is first being established. Paraiso can also be prepared along with garlic and onion as an internal parasite treatment for animals.
When planting trees, consider how urgently they are needed on the farm, and how long it will take them to reach full height. Quick-growing species will jump-start the farm by providing shade, organic matter, erosion control, and forage within a year. Quick-growing species may also block the sun from slower-growing species planted nearby. Slow-growing species such as Tajy and Yvyra Ro are best seen as an investment for the future. They are long-lived and often valuable woods; a full-grown Tajy or Cedro may well pay for a college education. Below is a table of trees commonly used in sub-tropical agriculture to help you decide which species will best suit any given need:
Name
Growth Rate
Uses and Characteristics
Green Manure?
Economic Value
Paraiso Gigante (not ‘comun’)
Very Fast (4-5meters/1st yr)
Carpentry, firewood, and natural pesticide. Distasteful to cows.
No
Primary
Yvyra Ju
Medium
Firewood, charcoal. Gives little shade. Excellent for interplanting with crops.
Yes
Secondary
Yvyra Pyta
Fast, up to 2meters/year
Carpentry. Does not burn well.
Yes
Primary
Timbó
Fast, 1.5 meters/year.
Beehive, crate, and canoe construction. Good live fence posts. Shallow root systems make them incompatible with field crops. Pods are poisonous.
Yes
Secondary to Tertiary
Kurupua’y Kuru
Fast, up to 1.5meters/year
Animal forage, firewood, fence posts, and carpentry; very rot resistant.
Yes
Primary
Kurupua’y ra
Medium
Same as above, but less strong and rot-resistant
Yes
Secondary
Leucaena
Fast, 2-5meters in first year
Excellent forage, soil recuperation, and erosion control. Firewood. Produces lots of seeds.
Yes
Secondary
Cedro
Fast
The preferred wood for carpentry; predisposed to borer moth
No
Primary
Toona
Fast
Similar to above, but immune to borer
No
Primary
Yvyra Ro
Slow
Excellent for carpentry
Yes
Primary
Tajy sayju/ hu/ rosado
Slow
A strong wood. Good for carpentry, fence posts, and firewood.
No
Primary
Peterevy
Fast
Carpentry; does not need pruning
No
Primary
Hovenia
Fast
Carpentry, firewood, animal forage
Yes
Primary
Grevilea
Fast
Carpentry, windbreaks. Melliferous
No
Primary
(Common Agroforestry Trees)
Look for species native to the area that grow well in the prevailing climate: bananas and papayas need sun and rain; olives and almonds do well in arid areas; guavas, pigeon pea, and acacias tolerate drought; willows and eucalyptus need plenty of water. Also consider the needs of the tree as well as what it will be used for when deciding where to plant it. Trees which need a lot of water should be planted near a stream or fish pond; they will provide organic matter to the pond, as well. Trees which will provide forage should be planted near the corrals or pasture. Those which prefer dry soils can be planted on quick-draining hillsides. Species that do not tolerate drought should be placed near a water drainage pipe or within reach of the well for easy watering. Consider winter and summer sun angles when planting trees for shade.
It is possible to gather trees seeds from existing trees for planting. Soft seeds need no treatment before planting. Semi-hard seeds (those with a shell that you can dent with your teeth) should be put in boiling water before planting to encourage sprouting. Very hard shells (those you cannot dent with your teeth) need to be snipped open on one end to allow the sprout to emerge. Be careful not to cut the see within. Plant all seeds in containers according to guidelines cited in the Garden section of this manual. Quicker than planting is transplanting saplings. Track these down from forest areas for neighboring farmers. As a last resort, saplings can be purchased or, in the case of a community organization, donations can be requested.
Saplings can be transplanted once they reach ½ meter or more in height. Transplant on a cool, cloudy day. In sub-tropical climates, it is essential to plant as soon as the danger of frost is past; do not plant after September (in the southern hemisphere). Dig a hole bigger than the container the sapling is in. Fill the bottom of the hole with dried manure, compost, or other natural fertilizers. Remove the sapling from its container disturbing the root mass as little as possible. The root mass should sit in the hole below ground level. Fill in the hole around the sapling. Construct fencing around the sapling to defend it against grazers, vehicles, and pedestrians. Keep grasses and other vegetation cut back about 12 inches around the perimeter of the sapling until it is well-established. Water regularly. Watch for any yellowing or wilting. Yellowing indicates either an excess of water or a need for more natural fertilizer; wilting indicates a lack of water.
Energy
Steps toward energy independence usually come once a permaculture is well-established and the farmer no longer needs to devote large amounts of time and energy to securing the basic nutritional needs of the family. These simple technology systems make everyday needs more readily available with less energy input. Additional information on all of the technology described here and more can be located online and through library resources.
Biodigestor (all photos courtesy of Gonzalez)
A biodigestor is any container in which organic matter decomposes in the absence of air. This decomposition process produces methane gas, which can be piped out of the biodigestor and burned as a source of heat. Biodigestors come in many shapes, sizes, and levels of complexity. The least-expensive and simplest to build, however is the horizontal biodigestor:
This biodigestor is built with an inflated tube of plastic sheeting sitting in a trench in the ground. Each end is attached to a hard plastic tube, forming entry and exit points for the organic material. A rubber tube is attached to the top of the plastic sheeting; this is where the gas leaves the biodigestor. The rubber tube leads to a gas valve and stove unit, where it can be used to prepare food.
The materials needed to build the horizontal biodigestor are:
· 20meters of tubular polythene plastic sheeting (polietileno tubular)
· 10meters of Cristal polyvinyl laminate, transparency 40microns (lámina de polivinilo plástico “Cristal” transparente de 40 micrones)
· 2 20-liter plastic buckets, bottoms removed (valde)
· 4 meters of 1-inch plastic hose (manguera)
· 1 1-inch water tank exit (salida para tanque de agua)
· 4 1-inch hose connectors (conexion para manguera)
· 4 hose cinches (abrazaderas)
· 1 1-inch T-connector (conexion T)
· 1/3meter of ½-inch PCV pipe (caño PCV)
· 1 2-liter plastic bottle (botella plastica)
· 1-inch hose or PCV pipe—sufficient to reach kitchen
· 1/2 meter ½-inch galvanized pipe (caño galvanizado)
· 1 ½-inch gas valve (llave de paso)
· 1 ½-inch galvanized elbow connector (codo galvanizado)
· 1 Stovetop burner (quemador de cocina)
To begin building the biodigestor, dig a ditch 10meters long, ½ meter wide, and ½ a meter deep. Angle out both ends of the ditch to accommodate the entry and exit points:
Next, fit one half of the polythene plastic tubing inside the other half, so that the tube has two sleeves. Arrange the polyvinyl sheet so that it is between the two sleeves of polythene:
The side of the tube that the polyvinyl is in will be the top of the biodigestor. Now its time to install the gas exit point. Since gas rises, this needs to be on the upper portion of the tube, where the polyvinyl is. Install the water tank exit through the top of the tube:
Now put together the security valve. Attach the 4 meters of hose to one side of the T-connector. The other side of the T-connector will be attached to the hose or PCV pipe running to the kitchen. The center of the T-connector will be for the 1/3meter of PCV pipe. This should be inserted inside the 2-liter bottle, filled halfway with water:
Connect the gas valve and stovetop burner to the other end of the hose or pipe running to the kitchen:
Now the biodigestor needs to be inflated. This can be done one of two ways. The first option is to tie off one end of the tube and run it through one of the buckets. Block the gas exit point. Then begin filling the tube with air from the other end with a fan. When the tube is nearly full, put the second bucket on the open end of the tube. Once the tube is full, tie off the second end as well:
A second option is to tie off both ends of the tube and run them through the 20-liter buckets. Then attach the biodigestor to a car exhaust pipe through the gas exit point with a hose. Turn on the car; once the biodigestor is full, remove the hose and block the gas exit point:
Next, insert a water hose into one of the tied ends of the tube and fill the tube with water. Now, open the tied ends of the tubes, fold them back over the buckets, and tie them tightly. You can also connect the security valve to the gas exit point on the top of the biodigestor:
Add organic matter to the biodigestor until it is nearly full. Pig and chicken manure are the most effective materials for methane production. Other types of manure will produce little methane. Leaves and other plant waste are not recommended. Mix well with a long pole or tube:
Manure and water can be added and remixed on a daily basis. As organic matter decomposes, it will be pushed out the other end of the biodigestor. This partially decomposed manure may be added to compost piles or worm beds, or it may be placed directly in the garden or field as an excellent fertilizer.
Compost Latrine
Compost latrines are an invaluable way to convert human waste into viable fertilizer for the farm. They are more difficult to build than other types of latrines, but are worth the effort when compost fertilizer is in demand. Compost latrines feature two vaults; one is used until full and then sealed; in the meantime, the second one is used. After two years the first vault may be opened and emptied—it contents will now be an odorless, disease-free compost fertilizer.
The key to a successful compost latrine is not allowing water to enter the vault. The presence of water will allow bacterial growth, and the contents of the vault will not decompose to compost in the given 2-year time span. The latrine should be built uphill and at least 30 meters away from water sources such as springs, rivers, and wells; it should also be at least 2 meters above the wet season groundwater level, built partially above ground if necessary.
To build a compost latrine, begin by digging a hole 2 meters wide by 2.4 meters long to a depth of ½ to 1meter. If water appears in the hole, fill it back in up past the water level. Dig out an additional space on what will be the back of the latrine to allow for the vent pipe. From above, the hole should look like this:
2m
2.4m
If the latrine is near the groundwater level, it is best to put in a 50-70mm thick cement floor for the vault. Build a 1.5 by 1.8meter wooden frame and mound up dirt around the edges of the frame. Fill this in with concrete. Then cover the cement with plastic, grass, old cement bags, cloth, or some other material to keep it damp for about 5 days. This will help the cement to reach its full strength. If the latrine vault is well above wet season groundwater levels, there is no need for a cement floor.
Build the walls of the vaults and the vent pipe inside the hole to a height of .8meters using mortar and fired brick or cement blocks. The vaults together should measure 1.65 meters by 1.3meters. There should be three compartments: the two vaults with a dividing wall in between, and the vent pipe apart. The vent pipe should be at least 2.5cm squared to allow for good air flow. Build a cement block or brick support beam across the two vaults .8meters from the back of the vaults:
1.65m
1.3m
Build the walls up level with the top of the support beam so that their full height is about 1 meter. Lay bricks or blocks flat over the top of the support beam and the walls of the vaults in front of the support beam. This ledge will support the removable vault covers. Build the wall up .15meters higher around the remaining back parts of the vault and vent pipe walls. Omit from this final layer the bricks or blocks separating the vent pipe from the vaults. This will allow airflow up and out of the vaults:
Ledge for vault covers added
Bricks omitted for ventilation
Back sections of walls built up one level higher
Now prepare two squat covers for the top level, and two vault covers for the lower level. These slabs and covers should be big enough to cover the vaults completely without allowing flies, mice, or other pests to enter. To construct concrete slabs to serve as covers, dig square, shallow pit about 50mm deep and about 200 mm wider and longer than the area of the vault it will be covering. Make sure the floor of the pit is very smooth. Put wire mesh inside the pit, or make a wire grid, spacing the wires by about 2cm. If the slab is to be a squat cover, cut a hole in the middle of the wire mesh or grid. Put the grid in the pit. Bend the ends of the wire under, or prop the corners up on small stones, so that the wire sits just up off the ground. Put a bucket in the hole in the middle of the wire mesh or grid:
Stones
Bucket through hole in wire mesh (for squat covers only)
Wire Mesh
Pour cement into the pit around the bucket to a thickness of about 50mm. About 3 hours later, after the cement begins to harden, remove the bucket. Then cover the cement with plastic, grass, old cement bags, cloth, or some other material to keep it damp for about 5 days. This will help the cement to reach its full strength. Remove the slab from the pit and place over the vault.
Mound up dirt around the base of the compost latrine. This may be the dirt left over from the excavation for the vaults. The mound should extend about ½ meter out around the edges of the vaults. It will protect the vault walls from wear and dampness. Compress the dirt well so that it stays in place. Construct a shelter on top of the latrine. Material and height will depend on the users; however, the shelter should protect the latrine and users from the weather. It should have ventilation holes. The roof’s overhang should be wide enough to shelter the mound built up around the latrine vaults.
Place a wooden lid over the opening in the squat cover when it is not in use. A wooden pole may be inserted in the top of the lid to facilitate removal and replacement of the lid:
Before using a vault for the first time, put plenty of plant material in the vault. This will help in decomposition and odor absorption. After each use, ask, sawdust, or powdered cow or horse dung should also be added to the vault. Add organic kitchen waste or fresh plant remains to the latrine vault at least once a week; this will improve the quality of the compost. Clean the latrine regularly with disinfectant as for a bathroom. When a vault is nearly full (about ½ meter before the squat cover), seal the vault and begin using the other. After two years or more the vault may be reopened and emptied of compost to use again.
Solar Oven
Solar ovens greatly reduce the need for cooking fuel. Cooking times are longer than that of gas or electric ovens, but the final product is the same. Anything which is baked in a gas or electric oven can also be baked in a solar oven. A solar oven can double as a fruit dryer by leaving the lid slightly open to allow water vapor to escape.
To construct a solar oven, find or make a box with one side left open; the box can be cardboard, wooden, or metal. Ideally, the open top of the box should be angled:
Angled top
However, this is not absolutely necessary. Line the box with aluminum foil with the shiny side is out. Paint the outside of the box black. Cover the open side of the box with a removable lid of clear plastic sheeting or glass. A double layer with airspace in between will heat up more than a single layer. The lidded box should be fairly airtight in order to heat properly. When cooking, move the oven every couple hours so that it faces the sun at all times. If the oven is not angled to face the sun, it can be propped up much as the contents allow so better receive the sun’s rays.
Solar Dryer
Solar dryers are similar to solar ovens, except that they contain less heat and allow for increased air flow. This speeds the drying process. To construct a solar dryer, follow the directions for the solar oven. Make an opening in the lower part of one side of the box to allow cool, dry are to flow in; make a opening in upper part of the other side of the box to let warm, wet air escape. Solar dryers are often set up long ways, with the glass or plastic cover on one side:
Wood or carboard walls
Air flow exit
Air flow entry
Shelves for drying
Glass pane
Hot Box
Hot boxes are an easy-to-do technology that saves time and cooking fuel. This method is especially useful for foods which need a long cooking time, such as stews, potatoes and mandioca, casseroles, rice, beans, fruit preserves, etc. Cooking times are similar to that of the solar oven; start cooking a little earlier in the day. Prepare the food in a pot as usually. Bring the pot to a boil on the stove and let it boil for about 2 minutes. Then immediately transfer the lidded pot to a wooden, cardboard, or other type of box full of straw, blankets, or any other type of insulation. Cover the lid of the pot with more insulation and close the box. The box may even be put inside an additional insulating layer, such as more blankets or straw, or a closed space. The contents of the pot will continue to cook for a couple hours.
Solar Shower or Bath
Water left in a black container in full sun will heat. Any type of container that holds water and can be painted black will be fine. This can be a black plastic bag, a plastic jug or tank painted black, or any number of other containers. 40 liters will be enough for a good shower. The larger the container, the longer it will take to warm the water.
Make a hole in the bottom of the container just big enough to squeeze in a purchased valve; seal in place with plenty of waterproof adhesive and allow it to dry completely. Depending on the type of container, it may be necessary to punch a small hole in the top of the container as well to allow air to displace the water flow. Attach a hose and showerhead to the valve using the waterproof adhesive. To increase water pressure or the length of the shower, attach several containers to the valve using a T-valve, or attach the hose of one container into the next. Suspend the container in a place where it will receive sun all day; preferably it should be easily accessed for refilling and for showering as well.
Rainwater Tank
In areas with unreliable rains or seasonal dry periods, water collection is essential. Rainwater is particularly valuable since it needs no treatment to be safe for human consumption. Any type of roof is a perfect opportunity to collect rainwater. For every 100mm of annual rainfall, each square meter of roof area captures 80 liters of water. That means that, for example, if annual rainfall is 400mm, then a 25m² roof will gather 8000liters of water. Given that the average person uses 10 liters of water per day for drinking and preparing food, and an additional 60liters for other needs, those 8000 liters would provide a family of five people with drinking water for 5months, or water for all their needs for 3weeks. All that is needed is some spouting to catch and reroute the water, and a tank to store it in.
Spouting can be made from a variety of materials, including bamboo, wood, PCV pipe, and metal sheeting. This spouting should be suspended from the lower ends of the roof using wire or rope. It is essential that the spouting be hung at a slight angle, so that all the water runs down toward the end that will connect on to the storage tank. Test the spouting by pouring in some water at the highest point.
Use pipes to connect the spouting onto the storage tank. Alternatively, continue the open-topped spouting right up until the tank, constructing a small roof over the spouting so that dirt and leaves do not fall in to it. Building the tank very close to the house will minimize the need for pipes and will make the water reserve easy to access.
The tank can be made of a variety of materials and sizes, depending on the needs of the family. Cement, brick, wood, and metal are all options. A cement or brick tank is particularly durable and easy to maintain. For a brick tank, begin by laying the floor of the tank. A few inches above the floor, leave a space in the wall of the tank big enough for the exit pipe. Similarly, leave a space in the top of the tank for the entry pipe. Also leave an opening big enough to allow access to the inside of the tank for cleaning. Once the brick has dried, plaster the interior and exterior of the tank with cement to strengthen the structure and make surfaces smooth and easy to clean.
Build a cement tank by first constructing a frame out of chicken wire supported by metal rods sunk into the earth. The frame should be two rings of fencing, one about six inches inside the other; this space will be filled with cement. Alternatively, the frame may be built with bamboo tied onto the metal rods with wire. Do not, however, sink wooden beams into the ground to support the frame. The frame will end up being part of the wall of the tank, sealed in between the cement fill and the final plastering. Wooden beams running out of the bottom of the tank into the ground will begin to rot from the bottom up, eventually weakening the walls of the tank.
Fill in the floor of the inside of the tank with cement. Insert a pipe through the side of the frame a few inches above the floor. This will be the exit point of the tank. Fill the frame with a cement/sand/gravel mixture. When this has dried, build a frame for the top of the tank. Leave an opening big enough to allow for occasional access to the interior of the tank for cleaning. Insert the pipe that will allow water to enter the tank. Fill the frame, allow it to dry, and smooth out the surfaces with pure cement.
Seal the interior of the tank with nontoxic water proofer. Paint the outside of the tank to protect it against the elements. A roof over the tank will offer additional protection; spouting can be put on this roof and connected to the tank as well.
The final element needed in a roof rainwater collection system is a way to prevent the first bucket of water to come off the roof from entering the tank. This first bucket of water will contain all the dust that may have accumulated on the roof since it last rained. If someone will always be around the house to do it, placing a bucket under the spouting when it begins to rain will do. There are also ways to attach a bucket to the spouting that will work on its own:
Tank
Bucket on hinge with counter weight
Spouting to tank entry
Drainage hole in bottom of bucket
Curved entry pipe
Support beams from house wall
Roof
One simple possibility is to set up a funnel below the end of the spouting to catch water destined for the reserve tank. Hinge a bucket with a ½ inch hole in the bottom to the outer edge of the funnel so that it angles over the funnel. Attach a weight to the side of the bucket nearer the funnel to steady it in place. The weight should be heavy enough and near enough the top of the bucket so the bucket swings in the other direction when it is nearly full of water. If the weight is too strong, the weight of the water will not tilt the bucket, and the dirty water will overflow into the tank. If it is not strong enough, the bucket will tilt before it is full of water, and dirty water from the roof will reach the tank anyway. A curved pipe between the funnel and the tank will allow any leftover debris to drop down below the flow of water into the tank. The hole in the bottom of the bucket will allow it to drain slowly and return to it’s normally position alone. This hole may be plugged.
Before rigging up the system, give the interior of the tank and all other surfaces that will come in contact with the rainwater a final cleaning with bleach and rinse well. If the system is clean, the water will need no additional treatment before human consumption. Cover the access doorway tightly. Connect a faucet to the exit point of the tank and the spouting of the house to the entry point. Check the inside of the tank for cleanliness before every rainy season. Algae growth may occur; these plants will keep the water in the tank oxygenated and fresh indefinitely.
Parasite Prevention and Treatment Recipes
Internal Parasites—Cows
Dry and crush eucalyptus and verbena leaves. Gather fresh banana leaves. For adults, combine 3 banana leaves and 50mg each of eucalyptus and verbena leaves. For calves, combine 1 banana leaf with 50mg each of eucalyptus and verbena. Add this mixture to the animal’s feed once a day for a week.
Internal Parasites-Pigs, Chickens, Humans, Dogs and Cats
Gather, dry, and crush papaya seeds. Add 4 tablespoons for adult pigs or 1 tablespoon for piglets to food once a day for a week. For chickens, add 2 tablespoons for every liter to drinking water once a day for a week.
Internal Parasites-All Animals and Humans
Crush 100grams of garlic and combine with 1 liter white cane alcohol. Let it sit 10 days. Mix into 20 liters of water (50mL/1 liter of water) for large animals; mix into 100 liters of water (10mL/1 liter of water) for small animals. Give to animals once a day for a week. Alternatively, crush garlic and add 200grams to 10 kilos of mineral salts. Give this to animals for the first two weeks of the first month of treatment, the first ten days of the second month, and the first five days of all months following.
Lice and Mange-All Animals
Crush 1/2kilo of paraiso leaves; combine this with 2 liters of white cane alcohol and leave sit 48 hours. Strain; add 200 grams of lime and 8 liters of water. Rub over animal well and rinse.
Ticks-All Animals
Mix 100 grams of salt, 30grams of crushed garlic, and 100grams of sulfur powder into 5 kilos of mineral salts. Add 40-70grams to animal’s food (depending on size of animal) once a day for a week.
Burrowing Flies-All Animals
Crush 1 kilo of guembe leaves and 1 kilo of paraiso leaves. Add to 18 liters of water. Add 2 liters of cow urine, and leave sit 48 hours. Strain; sprinkle over animals, using approximately 3 liters for an adult cow.
Specialty Product Recipes
Processing raw farm products increases the shelf life as well as the value of the product. It also adds interesting variety to the farm family’s diet. When selling specialty products, consider the value of all the ingredients (not how much you paid for them—the grapefruits you picked off your own tree for free may cost G10,000 in the market); the value of the gas, electric, or human energy used in processing the product; the value of the packaging of the product (this may be reimbursed to clients if they return the container); and the value of the time it took to process the product. Do not forget that ecological and homemade products are more valuable than those developed using chemicals or mass production. Additionally, look for ways to set your product apart: cleaned, sliced, and packaged meat ready for cooking is more valuable than uncut meat with all the skin, fat, and bones attached. Finally, consider the competition: if other local farmers sell ecological rabbit meat at G25,000/kilo, it is unlikely that you will make frequent sales of a similar product at G30,000/kilo. On the other hand, if you are the first person you know of to begin selling homemade wines, you may have the rare opportunity to name your price.
Yogurt
There are many varied opinions as to how much yogurt should be used per liter of milk in yogurt production. Normally, using more yogurt per liter means leaving the milk to ferment for less time. However, these methods also tend to produce lumpy, sour, or liquidy yogurt. Additionally, you’ll only be able to use your homemade yogurt to create new batches a limited number of times. The recipe provided here ensures smooth, thick, neutral-flavored yogurt which can be reused to make new batches indefinitely. You may make the yogurt with whole milk, or let the milk sit for 24hours before boiling and skim off the layer of cream that rises to the top.
Obtain yogurt with active cultures. (Most store-bought yogurt will do as long as it doesn’t contain preservatives—this means the bacteria cultures are dead. Read the ingredients list.) Boil raw milk. Cool it to the point that you can put your finger in it without burning yourself (about 110-120F). Add 1 teaspoon of yogurt per liter of milk and mix well. Maintain the temperature of the milk as much as possible (it MUST be over 70F) for 7-8 hours. This can be achieved in a variety of ways—experiment until you find one that works for you consistently. You can place the milk in a thermos, a pot of warm water, a warming oven, or near a lighted stovetop. You can also put the milk into a watertight container and wrap in a sweater or blanket inside another container with a hot water bottle. It is even possible to leave the milk in the sun, as long as it in an opaque container (direct sunlight will kill the bacteria). The method that works for you will depend on what you have around the house and the current temperature. Just make sure the milk doesn’t get any hotter, or the bacteria will die. After 7-8hours, refrigerate the yogurt, and enjoy! Just remember to leave enough to start your next batch. Start a new batch within a week’s time, or the bacteria may no longer be viable. Lumpy yogurt means too much culture was used. Liquidy means it got too hot. Sour means it was left to ferment too long. Yogurt can be sold for G8-10,000 per liter in urban areas. In the countryside, where commercial yogurt is less accessible, it can be sold for more.
Cheese
It is not necessary to boil milk before making cheese. Cheese can be made with whole or skimmed milk. Warm milk to approximately 95F (that’s about the temperature of your body). Add 8-10mL (1.5-2teaspoons) of coagulation liquid (this can be purchased medium-sized store—make sure it is not expired) for every 10L of milk. Let it sit for 45 minutes, and then cut it in a grid pattern with a knife. Allow it to sit 10-15 minutes more, and then pour it through a colander. Leave it sit until all the liquid has drain through, turning it over once to speed the process. 7-10L of milk (depending on the quality of the milk) produce 1kilo of cheese. Leave at room temperature for a more aged cheese, or store in the fridge to keep it soft and fresh.
For parmesan-like hard cheeses, salt the cheese and leave it to dry in the sun or other hot place until it is yellow and solid. Grate.
Cheese is sold for about G15,000/kilo is rural areas; in urban areas it can easily be sold at G20,000/kilo. Grated cheese is much more expensive; it may be sold for up to G45,000/kilo.
Ricotta
It is not necessary to boil milk before making ricotta. Bring milk to between 115 and 140F. Lower temperatures will make softer cheese. While still on the stove, stir the milk vigorously as you add 50-60mL of white vinegar (2.5mL is 1 teaspoon) for every liter of milk. When the curds separate from the whey, pour the whole mixture through a colander lined with a thin cloth (cheesecloth works very well). Hang for about an hour, or until it stops dripping. Store in a container and refrigerate. The ricotta produced from 10liters of milk (just about 2kilos) sells for G40,000.
Butter
Leave raw milk stand for 24 hours; skim the cream from its surface. Refrigerate the cream until it is between 45F and 60F. Next, place it in a blender or a watertight container. Blend on low speed, or shake by hand about 15 minutes. Look at it occasionally; when you see yellow balls the size or corn kernels and a clear liquid, you are done! Drain off the liquid (This is buttermilk. Keep it! See next recipe.) and then rinse the butter with about as much water as you just drained off of it. Store in the fridge. Butter sells for about G10,000-15,000/kilo.
Cultured Buttermilk
Boil milk and let it cool to room temperature. Add 4 tablespoons of buttermilk (drained from butter) and a dash of salt for every liter of milk. Leave stand 24hours. Agitate and refrigerate. Like yogurt, buttermilk is an excellent low-fat replacement to butter in baked goods, as well as a leavening agent.
Ice Cream
Ice cream is best made in a freezer that can be set as low as 0F (-18C). 6cups of cream will produce about two liters of ice cream. With the cream, combine a dash of salt, the desired flavoring, and sugar as necessary. A few possible flavors include: vanilla, peach, strawberry, mango, papaya, chocolate, lemon, cinnamon, honey, orange, peanut, and mint. You can also combine flavors, such as cinnamon-honey, vanilla-orange, etc. Up to 5 eggs yolks for every 2 liters of ice cream may be added to make the final product creamier in appearance and flavor. The amount of sugar that will be needed will depend on the sourness of the flavoring. Vanilla needs only 1 cup; fruits such as peach and strawberry about 1.5cups, orange 2 cups, and lemon 3cups. Honey can completely or partially replace sugar. Preserves, jellies, and fruits canned in syrup may be used as flavoring; only a ¼ of the sugar needed for fresh fruit will be necessary.
Place the mixture in the freezer. Shallow containers will speed the freezing process; plastic containers will be easier to handle than metal ones but must be strong enough to withstand stirring. When the mixture is about half frozen, remove it and stir well with a wooden spoon. Return to the freezer until frozen completely. Ice cream can be sold at anywhere from G25,000 to G45,000 per kilo, depending on the local market and competition.
Lip Balm and Skin Cream
Put clean beeswax in a clean tin can(to avoid ruining a good pot with hard-to-remove wax); put the can inside a pot of boiling water. Take care that water does not get into to the wax. When the wax has melted, add vegetable oil (olive, coconut, sunflower, or even cotton will work). For lip balm, the wax: oil ratio should be approximately 4:1. For skin creams, it should be about 2:1. Next, add any flavors or aromas desired; essential oils, cooking essences, and even vanilla sugar work fine. Stir the mixture well, remove from the heat, and pour into containers (old lip balm sticks, lip balm pots, or skin cream containers work great). Once the mixture has cooled, check the results. If it needs more oil, more wax, or more flavor/aroma, put them back in the can, melt them back down, and alter as desired. Small lip balms can be sold at about G7,000 each; skin creams can be sold at G40-60,000 per liter.
Propolis Potion
Remove approximately a quarter of the contents of a bottle of whiskey or white cane alcohol. Fill the bottle with pieces of propolis. Leave the mixture to ferment for one month. A few drops of this potion per day is said to address allergies, ailments of the joints, bones, muscles, tendons and ligaments, as well as the eyes.
Candles
Seal a thick cotton string with a chunk of clean beeswax. Then, put the wax in a clean tin can, and place the can inside a pot of boiling water; do not allow water to mix with the wax. Melt the wax down. Dip the string slowly into the melted wax and remove it. Allow the film of wax on the string to harden, and dunk it into the melted wax again. Continue this process until the candle is of the desired thickness. Slice the base of the candle off flat, and trim the top of the wick as needed.
Honey Wine
Boil for 10 minutes equal parts water and honey. Meanwhile, sterilize bottles or jars with boiling water. Add fruits and spices as desired to jars(examples: peach, pear, plum, strawberry, apple, grape, raisin; clove, cinnamon, coriander, vanilla. Avoid citrus fruits.) Once honey-water mixture has cooled, fill jars and top with balloons or deflated plastic baggies tied around the mouth of the bottle. Allow to sit at room temperature in a dark place. In a few days, the balloon will start to fill with air. Deflate as necessary. When the balloons stop filling with air, you may cork or top the containers and refrigerate. Age for several months more to improve flavor. Honey wine should be sold for at least G15,000 per bottle. Depending on the market, it may be sold for significantly more; consider the going price of honey in the area (ranging from G15,000/liter in rural areas to up to G45,000/liter in urban areas when in short supply).
Citrus Wine
Mix 1 liter of strained citrus juice (grapefruit is excellent) with ¼-1/2 kilo of sugar (1/4 for orange, 1/3 for grapefruit, ½ for lemon). Mix well and place in very clean bottles (glass can be sterilized with boiling water.) Tie a piece of thin cloth over the mouth of the bottle. Leave 2 weeks, and strain the liquid out through the cloth cover. Clean the bottles and cloth, and return the liquid to the covered bottles. Repeat the same process 1 week later, and again 1 week after that. Leave one more week, and then strain through cotton and place in sterilized bottles. Cork and refrigerate. Citrus wine may be sold at prices similar to that of honey wine.
Mango Chutney
Mash together 3 pounds of mango, 3 ounces of currants or raisins, and ½ cup lime or lemon juice. Sautee 1 chopped onion and 1 chopped chili pepper (or equivalent hot sauce) in 2 tablespoons of vegetable oil. Stir in the mango mixture, 1.5 cups of white vinegar, 1 cup of sugar, 2 teaspoons of mustard, 4 tablespoons of chopped ginger, 1 teaspoon of cinnamon, and 1 tablespoon of salt. Cook about 15 minutes. Cool, store in sterilized containers. Freeze what will not be eaten within a week. The total amount of chutney produced from the recipe provided here may be sold for G30,000 or more.
Sauerkraut
Sterilize a 1 liter glass jar and all instruments with boiling water. Core and shred 1 medium cabbage. Add 1 tablespoon of salt and 4 tablespoons of whey (this is the liquid left over after cheese production). Optional extra additions include: 8 cloves of garlic, 3 chilies, 1 inch of ginger root, 1 bunch of green onions, grated carrots, and grated turnips. Pound all ingredients together until the cabbage has released its juices. Pack the mixture firmly into the jar. Press it down so that the liquid completely cover the cabbage. If the liquid does not cover the cabbage, add a little more whey and pack the cabbage in as firmly as possible to release its juices. If necessary, add a baggie filled with water or other weight to the jar to hold the cabbage under the liquid. The liquid should be at least 1 inch from the top of the jar to allow for expansion of the cabbage. Lid the jar or tie a cloth tightly over the mouth of the jar. Leave at room temperature for 3 days, then refrigerate. The flavor will continue to improve with age. Depending on the seasonal availability of cabbage, a 1-liter jar of plain sauerkraut may be sold for 5-10,000G. Spiced sauerkraut is worth more, depending on the cost of the incorporated spices.
Ginger Carrots
Follow directions for sauerkraut, using 4 cups of grated carrots, 1 tablespoon or more of ginger, 1 tablespoon salt, and 4 tablespoons of whey. Garlic and chilies may also be added. Prices are similar to that of sauerkraut, depending on seasonal costs of carrots and the added spices.
Pickles
Sterilize a 2-liter jar and all instruments with boiling water. Scrub the cucumbers and remove spines and stems. Slice into spears if desired. Place a couple grape, guava, or guavira leaves in the bottom of the jar. Add desired spices: 1 head of garlic, a handful of fresh dill, 1-2 fresh chilies, and 1-2 tablespoons of mustard seed will make sour dill pickles. Add in cucumbers on top of spices. Dissolve 8 tablespoons of salt in 2 liters of water. Pour over the cucumbers. The cucumbers should be completely submerged, and there should be a 1 inch space between the top of the liquid and the mouth of the jar. If the cucumbers float, fill a plastic baggie or small container with water and put it in on top the cucumbers to weigh them down below the saltwater. Cover the jar with a towel or cloth and let sit. Check the mixture daily; skim off any mold growth. Remove, wash, and replace the weight if it develops mold growth. Pickles may be ready to eat anywhere between 4 days and 2 weeks later, depending on the ambient temperature and the sourness desired. Pickles can be sold for 15,000G per liter jar; the price may be increased slightly for spiced pickles.
Jelly and Preserves
All kinds of fruits and vegetables can be made into sweet sauces. Try pear, apple, peach, banana with grapefruit juice, tomatoes, squash, sweet potato, strawberry, and papaya, among others. A little bit of vanilla, cinnamon, or clove adds a special touch.
Remove seeds, stems, and stains from fruit. Mix with ½ to equal parts sugar, depending on the acidity of the fruit. Boil over very low heat. For jelly, allow the mixture to boil for several hours, until the fruit loses its shape. Mash or run through the blender to speed up this process. For preserves, cook for only ½ to 2 hours, so that the fruit pieces remain intact. Cool the mixture, place in clean containers, and refrigerate. Freeze what will not be used within a week. The value of the preserves will depend on the current prices of the ingredients used.
Freezing
Many seasonal products can be preserved in the freezer; encourage freezing as a method to ensure a wide variety of foods available to the farm family all year round. Remove stems, seeds, and bruises from fruits, and coat them with lemon juice or sugar before freezing. Juices can be frozen in baggies or plastic containers for easy removal. Cook vegetables down into sauces before freezing (tomato, bell pepper, chutney, etc). Fresh beans can be shelled and frozen in bags, as well. Meats, cheeses, and butter last for years frozen; even milk can be frozen for a few days.
Resources
Ahmed, et al. “Turkey-Management Guide.” Central Poultry Development Organization. Government of India Ministry of Agriculture. Bangalore, India. Accessed May 2010.
Back to Basics. Reader’s Digest. United States. April 1981.
Beetz, Alice. “Rotational Grazing.” The National Sustainable Agriculture Information Service. November 2004.
Berk, Steven. Phone Interview. Paraguay. May 2010.
“Captacion de Agua de Lluvia del Techo Para Consumo Humano.” Peace Corps Paraguay. Accessed May 2010.
Coffey, Linda, et al. “Goats: Sustainable Production Overview.” The National Sustainable Agriculture Information Service. August 2004.
“Common Agroforestry Trees.” Sharepoint. Peace Corps Paraguay. Accessed April 2010.
“Composting Latrines.” PDF Fact Sheet 3.7. Google.com. Accessed May 2010.
Gonzalez-Parini family. La Granja. Asuncion, Paraguay. April 2010.
“Fermented Food Recipes.” Suchoff, David. Kuatia ne’e. Peace Corps Paraguay. April 2010.
Leifers, Kris. “How to Make Mead”. Peace Corps Paraguay. 2007.
Little Big Cookbook. McRae Books Srl. Florence, Italy. 2003.
Mollison, Bill. Introduction to Permaculture. Tagari Publications. Sisters Creek, Australia. 1991.
Mog, Justin
Morrow, Ron. “Meeting the Nutritional Needs of Ruminants on Pasture.” The National Sustainable Agriculture Information Service. June 1998.
Pavlowich, Tyler. “Fish Culture in Paraguay.” Peace Corps Paraguay. 2008.
Produccion Agropecuaria Ecologica. Altervida. Asuncion, Paraguay. November 2003.
“Rabbits.” Agriculture Sector, Sharepoint. Peace Corps Paraguay. Accessed April 2010.
Schettler, Rick. “Pig Raising Project.” Peace Corps Paraguay. August 2000.
Stonehill and Duffy. Tembi’u Paraguai Pora. Peace Corps Paraguay.
0 comments:
Post a Comment